Vol.  V 


July  1905 


No.  3 


University  Studies 


Published  by  the  University  of  Nebraska 


COMMITTEE  OF  PUBLICATION 


C.  E.  BESSEY 


T.  L.  BOLTON 


D.  B.  BRACE 


H.  S.  EVANS 


F.  M.  FLING 


W.  G.  L.  TAYLOR 


J.  I.  WYER 


L.  A.  SHERMAN  Editor 


CONTENTS 


I  On  the  Movements  op  Petals 

Esther  Pearl  Hens  el 


191 


II  On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin 
Club  (November,  1789-July  17,  l-Jl) 

Charles  Kuhlmann  .  .  .  .  .  229 

III  On  the  Substantivation  of  adjectives  in 
Chaucer 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


251 


Entered  at  the  post-office  in  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  as  second-class  matter,  as  University 
Bulletin,  Series  10,  No.  14 


University  Studies 

.  L*  I,-  f  /  tt  /, 

Vol.  V  JUL  Y  i9o5  No.  3 


1. — On  the  Movements  of  Petals 

BY  ESTHER  PEARL  HENSEL 


INTRODUCTION 

The  following  paper  has  to  do  with  an  investigation  of  the 
physical  causes  which  bring  about  opening  and  closing  move¬ 
ments,  periodic  or  otherwise,  of  certain  flowers.  With  that  end 
in  view,  seven  different  species  of  flowering  plants  have  been  ex¬ 
perimented  upon  directly,  a  much  larger  number  being  simply 
observed  with  respect  to  the  nature,  time,  etc.,  of  their  antho- 
tropic  movements. 

Movement  consists  in  the  corolla  taking  upon  itself  either  the 
open  or  closed  position  for  certain  periods  of  the  day  or  night; 
for  example,  the  morning  glory  ( Ipomoea  purpurea )  opens  early 
in  the  morning  (from  4:00  to  5:00  a.m.,  in  the  greenhouse)  and 
closes  from  11  :oo  a.m.  to  2  :’oo  p.m.,  or  even  5:00  p.m.  on  cool 
days,  while  the  common  dandelion  ( Taraxacum  taraxacum) 
opens  from  7:00  to  8:00  a.m.  and  closes  from  5:00  to  6:00  p.m. 

In  the  closed  position,  the  petals  or  florets  may  assume  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  position  as  that  of  the  bud,  as  in  the  gentians, 
asters,  dandelions,  etc. ;  often,  however,  the  edges  of  the  petals 
only  touch,  forming  a  dome  inside  of  which  the  stamens  and 
pistil  are  well  protected,  as  in  the  wild  rose  and  in  the  tulip.  In 

University  Studies,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  July  1905. 

191 

100753 


2 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


some  genera,  as  in  Mentzelia,  the  sepals  may  stay  reflexed  after 
the  first  opening. 

For  convenience,  flowers  which  are  influenced  in  their  open¬ 
ing  and  closing  by  the  amount  of  heat  present  may  be  grouped 
into  four  classes  as  follows : 

I.  Day-bloomers. 

1.  Those  that  open  only  during  the  day,  but  for  two  or 

more  (sometimes  several)  days  in  succession  (hemer- 
anthous). 

2.  Those  that  open  only  during  one  day  or  part  of  a 

day,  then  the  corolla  withering,  deliquescing,  or  drop¬ 
ping  at  once  (ephemeral-hemeranthous). 

II.  Night-bloomers. 

3.  Those  that  open  only  during  the  night,  but  for  suc¬ 

cessive  nights  (nyctanthous). 

4.  Those  that  open  for  only  one  night  or  part  of  one  night 

( ephemeral-nyctanthous) . 

All  flowers  not  included  in  these  types  open  at  any  time  of  the 
day  or  night  and  stay  in  this  condition  through  day  and  night 
until  the  end  of  their  existence,  irrespective  of  the  amount  of 
heat  present.  Whether  a  flower  is  a  day-bloomer  or  a  night- 
bloomer  seems  to  depend  upon  nothing  so  much  as  habit,  the 
conditions  surrounding  the  plant,  its  environment,  in  no  way  in¬ 
fluencing  this  aspect.  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  explain 
the  causes  of  opening  and  closing  in  any  type  by  means  of 
experiments. 

The  form  of  the  corolla  and  its  physical  condition  when  ma¬ 
ture,  i.  e.,  dry  shriveling,  deliquescing,  deciduous  when  yet  fresh, 
etc.,  do  not  seem  to  influence  the  kind  of  movement;  any  type, 
for  instance  day-bloomers,  may  have  the  extreme  variety  of 
forms  of  corolla,  from  undivided,  as  in  the  morning  glory,  to 
divided,  as  in  the  tulip ;  the  corolla  itself  may  vary  in  its  phys¬ 
ical  characteristics,  e.  g.,  in  ephemeral  day-bloomers  from  dry 
shriveling  in  the  spring  lily  (Erythronium  albidum)  to  deliques¬ 
cing  in  the  spiderwort  ( Tradescantia  bract eata)  and  deciduous 


192 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


3 


in  flax  ( Linnm  usitatissimum) .  The  corolla  may  also  change 
in  color  upon  withering,  as  in  the  evening  primrose  ( Pachylophus 
caespitosus) ,  the  waxy  white  petals  turning  a  dull  pink  upon 
withering. 

The  life  of  an  individual  flower  varies  from  a  few  hours,  as 
in  the  ephemeral  species,  to  many  days.  According  to  Kerner 
and  Oliver,  the  range  is  from  3  hours  (in  Hibiscus  trionum)  to 
80  days  (in  Odontoglossum  rossii).  Whether  the  length  of  life 
of  an  individual  flower  and  the  closing  at  certain  hours  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  pollination  of  the  flowers  by  certain 
insects  is  not  a  question  to  be  discussed  here,  however  interesting 
it  may  be.  The  two  are  closely  connected  but  are  not  cause  and 
effect. 

Following  is  a  list  of  plants  which  show  these  movements, 
those  preceded  by  a  *  having  been  experimented  upon  directly; 
the  others  were  simply  observed.  The  list  is  very  small  when 
compared  with  the  cases  actually  known,  since  it  simply  includes 
those  coming  under  personal  observation  within  the  last  two  or 
three  years : 


Day  bloomers. 

DAYS 

OPEN  A.M. 

CLOSED  P.M. 

1.  Opening  and  closing  repeatedly. 
Agoseris  greenei,  (Gray)  Rydb. 

1-2 

7:00-  8:45 

2:00-3:00 

Claytonia  virginica  L. 

2 

8:00-  9:00 

6:30-7:30 

Crocus  vernus  All. 

12 

9:00-10:00 

4:00-5:00 

Erigeron  flagellaris  Gray 

2 

9:30-10:30 

5:00-7:30 

Gentiana  acuta  Michx. 

4 

8:00-10:00 

5:00-6:00 

Gentiana  frigida  Haenke 

4 

8:00-10:00 

5:00-6:00 

Gentiana  parryi  Engelm. 

4 

8:00-10:00 

5:00-6:00 

Lactuca  scariola  L. 

2-f- 

8:00-9:00 

3:00-4:00 

M achaeranthera  aspera  Greene 

4+ 

7:00-10:00 

4:00-6:00 

Rosa  w:odsii  Lindl. 

4 

6:00-10:00 

7:00 

*  Ta  axacum  taraxacum 

2-5 

6:00-  8:00 

5:00-7:00 

Tulipa  gesneriana  L. 

5-7 

9:00-10:00 

5:00-6:00 

2.  Opening  and  closing  but  once,  1  day  or  less. 
Epilobium  adenocaulon  Haussk. 

9:00 

3:00-5:00 

Erythronium  albidum  Nutt. 

8:00-  9:00 

6:00-7:00 

Specularia  perfoliata  (L.)  A.DC. 

7:00-  8:00 

3:00-7:00 

*Linum  usitatissimum  L. 

5:00-  8:00 

10  A.M.-2 

*Oxalis  stricta  L. 

8:00-  9:00 

3:00-4:00 

Portulaca  oleracea  L. 

10:00-11:00 

3:00-4:00 

193 


4 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


OPEN  A.M. 

CLOSED  P.M. 

Sisyrinchium  angustifolium  Miller 

9:30-11:00 

5:00 

-6:45 

Tradescantia  bradeata  L. 

5:00-  6:00 

0 

0 

-5:00 

Night  bloomers. 

OPEN  P.M. 

CLOSED  A.M. 

3.  Opening  and  closing  repeatedly. 

*Mentzelia  nuda  (Pursh.)  T.  &  G.  4-5  days 

3:00-5:00 

5:00- 

-  6:00 

4.  Opening  and  closing  but  once.  1  day  or  less. 

Allionia  linearis  Pursh. 

5:00-6:00 

8:00- 

-  9  00 

Allionia  nydaginea  Michx. 

4:00-5:00 

9:00- 

-10:00 

Cereus  grandiflorus  Mill. 

8:00-9:00 

2:00- 

-  3:00 

Datura  stramonium  L. 

'5:00  6:00 

0 

0 

00 

11:00 

*Ipomoea  purpurea  (L.)  Roth. 

4-5  A.M. 

10:30  a.m 

i.-3  p.m. 

*Mirabilis  jalapa  L. 

6:00-9:00 

10  a.m. 

-4  P.M. 

Onagra  biennis  (L.)  Scop. 

5:00-6:00 

9:00- 

10:00 

*Pachylophus  caespito^us  (Nutt.)  Raimann 

5:00-8:00 

9:00- 

11:00 

Silene  hallii  Wats. 

5:00-7:30 

9:00- 

12.00 

All  flowers  not  included  in  the  previously  stated  types  stay 
open  through  the  day  and  night  during  their  period  of  existence. 
Such  flowers  do  not  open  because  of  temperature  changes  but 
because  they  have  reached  a  certain  period  of  growth ;  the  largest 
number  of  flowers  belong  here.  Of  the  other  classes,  a  very  large 
number  are  day  bloomers,  a  smaller  number  night  bloomers. 

Ephemeral  flowers  behave  much  as  those  flowers  which  open 
and  close  for  several  days,  that  is,  they  are  influenced  by  temper¬ 
ature  variations ;  in  their  opening,  however,  they  show  a  close 
relation  to  the  large  number  of  flowers  which  open  only  once 
and  stay  open  until  they  die  (generally  after  several  days)  ;  the 
chief  difference  is  that  the  ephemeral  species  are  more  regular 
in  the  time  at  which  this  process  occurs. 

HISTORICAL  REVIEW  (FROM  l686  TO  I905) 

So  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  flower  movement, 
and  with  such  different  views  as  to  its  cause,  that  it  seems  ad¬ 
visable  to  give  a  rather  detailed  account  of  the  work  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  investigators. 

Pfeffer  reports  Cornutus  as  having  said  as  early  as  1686  that 
heat  caused,  or  at  least  hastened,  the  opening  of  the  anemone. 


194 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


5 


Whether  this  was  a  theory  or  had  really  been  found  out  from 
experimentation,  I  am  not  able  to  ascertain,  as  I  do  not  have 
access  to  the  original  paper. 

Linne  in  1751  gave  many  instances  of  flower  movement.  He 
made  a  list  of  forty-six  species  with  the  time  of  opening  and 
closing  of  each.  These  he  called  “sun  flowers”  (“solares  flores”) 
and  divided  them  into  (a)  those  which  the  conditions  of  shade, 
humidity  of  the  air,  and  atmospheric  pressure  affect  directly 
(“meteorici”)  ;  these  do  not  open  during  cloudy  or  rainy  weather; 
( b )  those  that  open  in  the  morning  but  close  before  evening,  at 
different  times  according  to  the  light  (“tropici”)  ;  (c)  those  that 
open  and  close  at  a  certain  hour  of  the  day  (“aequinoctiales”). 
These  last  he  grouped  into  his  “Floral  Clock”  according  to  the 
hours  of  the  day  at  which  they  open  and  close  their  flowers, 
every  hour  being  represented  by  two  or  three  opening  or  closing 
flowers ;  composites  were  also  included  here  since  the  ray  florets 
act  much  as  the  petals  of  simple  flowers.  It  is  quite  significant 
of  the  importance  of  the  subject  that  it  should  have  been  known 
even  thus  well  over  two  hundred  years  ago. 

According  to  Ro)^er,  Duhamel  (a  contemporary  of  Linne’s) 
attributed  opening  to  heat  and  turgescence,  but  said  that  heat 
rarified  the  cell  sap,  quite  contrary  to  the  later  view  that  tur¬ 
gescence  is  due  to  an  excessive  flow  of  liquids  to  certain  regions. 

Dutrochet  in  1836  gave  as  the  cause  of  the  opening  and  closing 
of  four-o-clocks  ( Mirabilis  jalapa  and  Mirabilis  longiilora) ,  the 
morning  glory  ( Ipomoea  purpurea),  and  the  dandelion  ( Taraxa¬ 
cum  taraxacum)  turgescence  and  the  filling  of  the  fibrous  tissue 
with  oxygen.  He  attempted  to  explain  the  process  in  this  way : 
on  the  external  side  of  the  corolla  nerves,  parenchymatous  tissue 
is  arranged  in  longitudinal  rows,  while  on  the  internal  side  there 
is  fibrous  tissue,  the  two  tissues  tending  to  curve  in  opposite  di¬ 
rections  and  thus  draw  along  the  other  tissues  surrounding  them. 
Opening  and  closing  result  from  the  alternately  predominant 
action  of  one  or  the  other  tissue.  The  parenchymatous  tissue 
tends  to  curve  outward  by  filling  with  water,  thus  causing  open¬ 
ing  in  flowers  of  Mirabilis ;  the  fibrous  tissue  curves  outward  by 
the  chemical  action  of  the  oxygen  in  the  water,  causing  closing 


195 


6 


Esther  Pearl  Hens  el 


of  the  flower.  The  reason  that  Mirabilis  closes  earlier  than  Con¬ 
volvulus  is  because  it  is  easier  for  Mirabilis  to  fill  its  fibrous  tis¬ 
sue  with  oxygen  under  the  influence  of  light  and  heat.  In  the 
case  of  flowers  opened  and  closed  for  several  days,  as  the  dande¬ 
lion,  etc.,  the  fibrous  tissue  becomes  gradually  filled  with  oxygen 
during  the  day  when  the  flower  is  open.  At  the  same  time,  the 
sap  current  is  diminished  because  of  the  decreasing  light,  thus 
decreasing  turgescence ;  in  consequence,  the  cellular  tissue  curves 
inward  and  the  flower  closes. 

Hermann  Hoffmann  (1850)  brought  together  results  showing 
that  temperature  was  the  all-important  factor  in  opening  and 
closing,  light  influencing  the  processes  only  as  it  contained  heat 
rays.  His  experiments  were  conducted  upon  foliage  leaves  of 
Oxalis  tetraphylla  and  Mimosa  pudica,  and  the  flowers  of  Tolpis 
barbata,  Oenothera  lindleyana ,  Onagra  biennis ,  Lotus  peregrinus, 
Jpomoea  purpurea ,  and  Eschscholtzia.  These  were  the  principal 
species  experimented  upon;  several  others,  however,  were  used 
to  help  disprove  that  sleep  movements  are  caused  by  moisture  in 
the  air,  electricity,  or  the  expansion  of  gas  within  the  plant — 
causes  to  which  opening  had  been  ascribed.  He  further  proved 
that  opening  can  be  caused  artificially  at  the  hour  of  most  pro¬ 
found  sleep  by  simple  increase  of  heat  without  the  aid  of  light, 
but  that  the  prolongation  or  excess  of  heat  caused  sleep*.  He 
stated  also  that  the  dilatation  of  the  sap  by  the  action  of  heat 
could  not  cause  the  daily  expansion  of  a  flower,  since  water  ex¬ 
pands  only  1/22  of  its  volume  between  o°  and  ioo°  C. 

Royer  (1868)  affirmed  that  variations  of  heat  and  turgescence 
— complements  of  each  other — were  the  cause  of  all  flower  move¬ 
ments.  Taraxacum  taraxacum,  Crocus,  Tutipa  gesneriana,  Fi- 
caria  ranunculoides ,  and  Beilis  perennis  were  experimented  upon 
by  him  as  examples  of  sleeping  flowers,  i.  e.,  those  that  open  and 
close  several  times.  He  made  a  close  distinction,  however,  be¬ 
tween  sleeping  flowers  and  ephemeral  ones,  such  as  C onvolvulus 
arvensis,  C.  sepium,  Glaucium  davum,  S  tell  aria  media,  and  sev¬ 
eral  Veronicas,  which  sleep  only  in  appearance  and  close  only 
when  their  existence  is  ended.  These  latter,  he  said,  could  be 
transformed  into  sleeping  flowers  by  humid  earth,  shade,  late 


196 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


7 


flowering,  etc. ;  and,  vice  versa,  sleeping  flowers  could  be  made 
ephemeral  by  increased  heat  and  dryness,  or  when  the  whole 
flow  of  sap  toward  the  flower  was  hindered.  In  his  opinion, 
turgescence  and  heat  caused  opening  and  closing  by  the  unequal 
dilatation  of  the  faces;  without  heat  there  was  no  dilatation, 
without  turgescence  no  elasticity.  The  internal  face,  on  account 
of  its  position,  was  less  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  di¬ 
lated  more  than  the  outer,  causing  opening.  Prolonged  and 
abundant  transpiration  diminished  turgescence,  and  sleep  oc¬ 
curred;  then  the  internal  face  was  shortened  and  the  outside 
became  plane  and  convex. 

De  Candolle,  a  contemporary  of  Royer,  has  been  stated  by  the 
latter  as  having  emphasized  light  as  the  factor  causing  opening 
and  closing  movements. 

Light  and  moisture,  and  a  certain  law  of  periodicity,  were 
stated  by  Balfour  (1875)  to  be  the  cause  of  sleep  movements  of 
flowers,  periodicity  (or  habit)  being  given  almost  first  place. 

Darwin  (1881),  as  we  should  expect,  held  to  the  latter  view, 
saying  that  movement  was  a  quality  inherited  by  both  plants  and 
animals.  Pie  agreed  with  Pfeffer  that  nyctitropic  movements  of 
flowers  are  caused  by  unequal  growth  of  the  two  sides  of  the 
petals  due  to  temperature  changes. 

Gustav  Zacher  (1881)  ascribed  floral  movement  of  Lotus  or- 
nithopodiodes  to  light,  but.  more  especially  to  the  variability  of 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  water  vessels. 

Pfeffer  reports  Hofmeister  to  have  said  that  temperature 
changes  caused  movements  in  garden  tulips. 

According  to  Sachs  (1882  and  1887)  light  was  the  all-impor¬ 
tant  factor;  temperature  and  humidity  were  given  a  secondary 
place,  it  being  only  occasionally,  as  in  Tulipa  and  Crocus,  that 
they  were  the  important  factors.  However,  Pfeffer’s  experi¬ 
ments  (1876)  were  mentioned  by  him,  and  he  certainly  consid¬ 
ered  them  valuable.  Pfeffer’s  experiments  on  Tulipa,  Crocus, 
Adonis  vernatus,  Ornithogalum  umbellatum,  and  Cochicum  au- 
tumnale  make  heat  the  most  important  element.  He  considers 
opening  and  closing  mere  growth  movements ;  heat  and  light,  as 
they  diminish  at  night,  cause  the  outer  surface  to  grow  faster 


197 


8 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


than  the  inner,  and  the  flower  closes,  or,  in  the  case  of  flowers 
remaining*  open  at  night,  meteoric  influences  affect  the  internal 
and  external  surfaces  in  the  opposite  way. 

It  is  due  to  Anton  Hansgirg,  first  in  1890,  and  then  later,  that 
we  have  such  exhaustive  lists  of  plants  possessing  what  he  calls 
“gamotropic”  and  “carpotropic”  movements,  principally  the  lat¬ 
ter.  Under  the  former  term  he  includes  movements  that  serve 
to  protect  the  ovary  and  stamens  and  to  make  cross-fertilization 
easy;  under  the  latter,  those  growth  movements  of  flower  stems 
by  which  the  flower  is  placed  in  a  certain  position  at  one  period 
of  its  growth,  and  in  a  different  one  at  a  later  period ;  for  ex¬ 
ample,  the  morning  glory  bud  and  flower  are  erect,  while  the 
fruit  is  pendulous.  Movements  of  the  calyx,  involucre,  etc.,  to 
protect  the  fruit,  are  also  included  under  "‘carpotropic”  move¬ 
ments.  The  real  cause  of  what  he  terms  “gamotropic”  move¬ 
ments,  those  serving  to  protect  the  ovary,  stamens,,  etc.,  he  does 
not  state  directly,  but  in  a  later  paper  he  remarks  that  carpotropic 
nutation  .movements  are  not  so  dependent  upon  the  daily  change 
of  light  as  the  nyctitropic  and  gamotropic  appearances.  He  also 
makes  the  statement  that  carpotropic  movements  must  be  distin¬ 
guished  from  those  similar  to  nyctitropic  and  gamotropic.  ones 
which  occur  through  epinasty  and  hyponasty — the  merely  passive 
movements  without  growth.  In  a  still  more  recent  article  (1892) 
he  adds  a  few  facts  on  the  subject,  but  offers  no  explanation, 
saying  that  it  is  yet  to  be  proven  whether  periodic  opening  and 
closing  are  caused  by  changing  epinastic  and  hyponastic  growth 
of  flowers.  He  states  that  such  movements  are  inconstant  in 
different  genera  of  the  same  family.  The  same  lists  of  species 
were  continued  in  1896  when  he  assigned  to  gamotropic  and  to 
nyctitropic  movements  light  and  heat  as  causes.  He  divides 
gamotropic  flowers  into:  ( a )  those  periodically  opened  and 
closed,  ( h )  ephemeral,  day  or  night,  (c)  those  that  open  only 
once  and  stay  thus  until  withering  (agamotropic) ,  and  ( d )  those 
that  are  pseudocleistogamous  and  hemicleistogamous.  Light  is 
given  importance,  for  ephemeral  flowers  can  be  made  to  become 
two-day  flowers  if  deprived  of  light.  In  1902  still  further  addi¬ 
tions  were  made  to  these  lists  of  species  possessing  types  of  car- 


198 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


9 


potropic  and  gamotropic  movements.  Here,  as  in  earlier  publi¬ 
cations,  he  concludes  by  saying  that  the  exact  causes  are  unknown. 

In  a  paper  published  in  1890,  Hermann  Vochting  treats  of  the 
influence  of  temperature  upon  the  flower  movements  of  Anemone 
stellata — those  of  the  flower  pedicel  especially — but  he  also  men¬ 
tions  that  the  opening  and  closing  are  connected  with  the  unequal 
growth  of  the  upper  and  under  sides  of  the  basal  portion  of  the 
floral  leaves. 

Friedrich  Oltmanns  (1895)  gives  to  light  the  most  important 
place  in  causing  nyctitropic  movements  of  flowers,  the  more  in¬ 
tense  the  light,  the  earlier  the  closing  or  opening,  a  certain  quan¬ 
tity  of  light  being  necessary  for  the  withering  of  ephemeral  flow¬ 
ers  or  the  closing  of  periodically  moving  ones.  He  makes  the 
statement  that  Royer,  De  Candolle,  Dutrochet,  and .  Meyen  have 
all  thought  light  an  important  factor,  while  Pfeffer  considers 
that  heat  works  with  light  in  causing  flowers  to  open  in  the 
morning. 

Kerner  and  Oliver  (1895)  say  that  the  opening  of  flowers  is 
promoted  by  sunshine,  but  whether  it  is  light  or  heat  is  to  them 
a  question.  Kerner  says  that  the  amount  of  pollen  produced  and 
the  number  of  flowers  on  a  plant  directly  affect  the  length  of 
time  a  flower  stays  open.  As  to  the  physical  cause,  the  sun’s 
rays  affect  the  tension  of  the  tissues,  but  just  how  is  not  known. 
The  movement  of  flowers — the  change  in  the  position  of  the 
petals — is  only  another  expression  of  heat  energy.  The  author 
suggests  that,  since  anthocyanin  converts  light  into  heat,  if  the 
petals  or  sepals  are  white  on  the  inside,  the  under  surface  must 
be  tinged  red,  violet,  or  blue  in  order  to  cause  opening. 

From  Strasburger  and  Schimper  (1898)  it  is  to  be  inferred 
that  light  and  temperature  variations  are  the  cause  of  opening 
and  closing.  The  same  two  factors  are  said  by  Ludwig  Jost 
(1898)  to  cause  nyctitropic  movements.  They  work  together, 
the  two  sides  of  a  petal  reacting  in  an  opposite  manner  due  to 
internal  causes.  His  experiments  were  made  principally  upon 
tulip  and  dandelion  flowers.  He  gives  three  possibilities  as  to 
the  growth  of  the  two  sides.  The  first  is  Pfeffer’s:  the  growth 
of  the  concave  side  is  hindered  by  the  growth  of  the  convex  side, 


99 


IO 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


i.  e.,  the  concave  side  is  passive.  It  is  affected,  later,  as  much  by 
temperature  changes  as  the  convex  side.  The  second  (the  most 
probable  according  to  the  author)  is  that  the  opposite  sides  react 
in  an  opposite  manner  to  temperature  changes,  the  restraint  of 
the  concave  side  being  recognized  as  an  active  retardation  in 
growth.  The  third  possibility  is  that  the  concave  side  is  not 
usually  influenced  by  temperature  changes. 

Reynolds  Greene’s  view  (1900)  as  to  the  nervous  mechanism 
of  a  plant  is  especially  interesting,  although  flower  movement  is 
not  discussed  by  him  in  his  Vegetable  Physiology ,  in  which  the 
former  discussion  is  given.  He  says  that  a  plant  has  a  nerv¬ 
ous  mechanism,  and  that  stimuli  are  conducted  from  cell  to.  cell 
through  the  connecting  strands  of  protoplasm  which  pass  through 
the  cell  walls,  and  contrasts  this  with  the  nervous  system  of  ani¬ 
mals.  The  root  tip,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  apex,  the  three 
hairs  on  the  leaf  of  “Venus’  Fly  Trap,”  etc.,  are  special  sense 
organs  or  regions,  which,  however,  are  not  anatomically  dif¬ 
ferentiated.  The  protoplasm  in  those  parts  receives  the  stimulus 
due  to  the  physiological  differentiation  of  the  protoplasm ;  hence 
plants  can  respond  to  a  more  delicate  stimulus  than  animals.  The 
lack  of  coordination,  however,  may  cause  the  stimulus  to  produce 
a  harmful  effect  on  the  plant. 

J.  Bretland  Farmer,  in  an  article  which  appeared  in  the  New 
Phytologist  for  March  19,  1902,  refuses  to  accept  the  theory  that 
epinasty  and  hyponasty  cause  opening  and  closing  of  the  tulip 
flower.  He  attributes  movement  to  a  localized  irritable  tissue 
(as  in  Dionaea)  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  petals.  This  area 
consists  of  active  cells  capable  of  altering  their  state  of  tur- 
gescence,  or,  at  any  rate,  their  size,  more  readily  and  effectively 
than  the  cells  which  form  the  more  internal  tissue  layers.  The 
intercellular  spaces  are  large  in  these  perianth  leaves,  and  the 
cells  so  arranged  that  they  give  a  certain  amount  of  shearing 
action  without  damaging  the  cells  themselves.  One  experiment, 
made  by  Farmer,  is  to  put  a  median  longitudinal  section  in  dilute 
KNO;i  solution,  which  causes  the  petals  to  straighten  out  (open). 
To  prove  that  there  is  an  irritable  tissue,  he  puts  the  petal  in 
water,  when  it  closes,  or,  rather,  curves  in,  then  in  alcohol  to  kill 


2CO 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


1 1 

it,  and  finally  in  water  or  salt  solution,  when  it  straightens  out 
again.  He  considers  that  this  shows  that  movement  is  due  to 
the  life  and  activity  of  the  protoplasm. 

Detmar,  in  his  recent  Plant  Physiology  (1903),  devotes  some 
space  to  nyctitropic  movements  of  flowers,  citing  a  few  experi¬ 
ments  with  Leontodon  hastilis,  Tulipa  gesneriana Crocus  vernus, 
Adonis  vernalis ,  and  Taraxacum  taraxacum.  Those  with  Leon¬ 
todon  heads  show,  as  he  thinks,  that  light  variations  are  very 
important  in  the  opening  and  closing,  while  in  the  experiments 
with  all  the  others,  temperature  variations  alone  cause  the  move¬ 
ments.  His  experiment,  cited  for  Leontodon  hastilis,  was  about 
as  follows:  he  cut  off  during  the  day  several  stalks  possessing 
open  flowers  and  put  them  in  water  in  the  dark.  They  closed 
as  usual  in  the  evening  and  opened  again  the  next  morning  (in 
the  dark).  The  following  night  they  closed,  but  would  not  open 
the  next  morning  until  placed  in  the  light.  In  the  evening  they 
closed  again,  thus  proving  to  his  satisfaction  that  light  in  no  way 
affects  opening. 

The  view  held  by  Ludwig  Jost  in  his  recent  Plant  Physiology 
(1904)  is  that  not  all  flowers  act  nyctitropically  to  temperature 
variations ;  some  react  to  light  variations.  I  infer  from  his  state¬ 
ments  that  it  is  variations  in  light  that  cause  opening  and  closing 
in  composite  heads,  while  in  Crocus  it  is  temperature.  He  states 
that  darkness  has  the  same  effect  on  composites  as  coolness  has 
on  Crocus,  and  that  light  has  the  same  effect  as  heat.  He  adds 
that,  generally  in  nature,  it  is  the  receiving  of  light  accompanied 
by  a  rise  in  temperature,  or  the  taking  away  of  light  with  lower¬ 
ing  of  temperature,  that  causes  these  movements. 

In.  the  Prantl-Pax  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik  (1904),  rising  tem¬ 
perature  and  light  are  said  to  cause  the  inner  side  of  floral  leaves 
(such  as  Tulipa,  Crocus,  Adonis)  to  grow  more  than  the  outer; 
hence  the  flower  opens.  Lower  temperature  and  light  cause  the 
outer  to  grow  more,  and  the  flower  closes.  There  is  a  caution 
not  to  confuse  these  movements  with  those  of  ephemeral  flowers. 
The  author  seems  to  make  two  divisions  of  floral  movement : 
those  caused  by  outside  forces  (autonomous),  and  those  caused 
by  internal  forces,  turgor  changes,  brought  about  by  stimuli  act¬ 
ing  on  the  protoplasm  and  influencing  growth  (paratonic). 

201 


12 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


It  is  to  Pfeffer  more  than  to  any  one  else  that  we  owe  the  most 
of  our  knowledge  on  the  subject  of  plant  movement,  more  in 
respect  to  leaves  than  to  flowers,  however.  Temperature,  accord¬ 
ing  to  his  view,  causes  the  flowers  of  Crocus  and  Tulipa  to  open 
and  close  by  certain  variations.  A  sudden  rise  opens  them. 
They  then  turn  gradually  back  to  a  lesser  opening,  which  posi¬ 
tion  is  kept  constantly  while  the  temperature  remains  stationary. 
When  the  temperature  is  lowered  a  similar  reaction  occurs.  The 
flowers  of  Crocus  luteus,  C.  vernus,  and  Tulipa  gesneriana  react 
in  a  few  minutes,  he  says,  to  a  rise  of  ^4°  C.  The  flowers  of 
Adonis  vernalis,  Ornitho galum  umbellatum,  and  Colchicum  au- 
tumnale  react  less  strongly,  while  those  of  Ranunculus  fie  aria, 
Anemone  nemorosa,  and  Malope  trifida  respond  to  changes  of 
5°-io°  C.  Flowers  of  Oxalis  rosea,  Nymphaea  alba,  and  Leon- 
todon  show  only  a  common  thermonastic  movement  with  this 
change  (5°-io°  C.). 

In  volume  I  of  his  Plant  Physiology,  Pfeffer  states  that  os¬ 
motic  pressure  varies  with  temperature  according  to  the  same 
laws  that  influence  gaseous  pressure,  and  hence,  by  a  rise  in  tem¬ 
perature  of  15 °  C.  the  pressure  is  only  raised  from  100  to  105.5. 
Thus  temperature  can  never  exercise  any  marked  direct  effect 
upon  turgor  in  plants. 

The  most  recent  publication  on  this  subject  is  by  Walther 
Wiederscheim  (1904).  Movements  of  petals  are  said  by  him 
to  be  caused  by  variations  in  temperature.  The  flowers  experi¬ 
mented  with  were  Tulipa  and  Crocus.  Burgerstein  and  Farmer 
say  that  the  movement  in  these  flowers  is  a  variation  movement 
that  occurs,  not  on  account  of  growth,  but  by  the  changing, 
lengthening,  and  shortening  of  certain  tissue  complexes.  Jost, 
Schwendener,  the  author,  and  Pfeffer  consider  them  to  be  growth 
movements,  the  latter  saying  that  growth  produces  movement  by 
a  change  in  the  force  of  expansion  occurring  “simultaneously 
and  equivalerltly”  in  the  two  halves,  but  unequally  fast.  The 
other  three  agree  in  saying  that  growth,  one  phase  of  it,  either 
opening  or  closing,  occurs  as  a  result  of  light  or  temperature 
stimulus  but  unequally,  the  second  movement,  the  counter-reac¬ 
tion,  occurring  from  interior  causes,  due  to  the  stimulating  ac¬ 
tion  set  up  by  increase  in  growth  of  the  first  side. 


202 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


i3 


The  foregoing  summary  of  the  work  done  on  this  problem 
since  1686  shows  how  very  varied  have  been  the  theories  as  to 
the  cause  of  the  movement  of  floral  leaves,  and  the  great  need 
for  further  investigation.  Many  of  the  articles  which  support 
good  theories  show  evidence  of  a  small  or  inexact  amount  of 
experimentation.  This,  I  have  tried  to  avoid  by  endeavoring  to 
prove  all  statements  by  actual  experiment,  so  that  the  final  result 
should  be  conclusive.  As  to  the  exact  processes  which  are  car¬ 
ried  on  within  the  flower,  or  plant,  to  bring  about  movement, 
there  is  yet  much  to  be  done. 

EXPERIMENTAL  METHODS. 

Information  as  to  the  cause  of  floral  movements  was  sought 
in  two  ways :  first  by  means  of  field  observations,  and  second  by 
means  of  experiments  performed  either  in  the  field  or  greenhouse, 
mostly  the  latter  because  of  the  greater  ease  with  which  the  sur¬ 
rounding  conditions  could  be  controlled.  The  aim  was  to  elim¬ 
inate  the  possible  physical  factors,  such  as  light,  humidity,  etc., 
one  after  the  other.  For  example,  in  order  to  prove  that  humid¬ 
ity  could  not  cause  the  opening  of  the  flowers  of  the  morning 
glory,  light,  heat,  and  the  water-content  of  the  soil  were  made 
the  same  in  three  instances :  in  one  of  these  the  air  was  made 
very  dry,  in  another  very  moist,  and  in  the  third  it  was  kept  nor¬ 
mal.  The  procedure  was  the  same  for  the  elimination  of  the  other 
factors.  The  apparatus  used  for  these  experiments  was  very 
simple.  For  example,  in  the  humidity  experiment  cited  above, 
two  large  bell  jars,  thermometers,  a  psychrometer,  calcium  chlo¬ 
ride  for  absorbing  moisture,  and  a  piece  of  sheet  rubber  to  tie 
around  one  flower  pot  were  used.  Water-content  and  light  re¬ 
quire  tin  cans  for  soil  samples,  thermometers,  photometers,  and 
a  shade  tent.  To  ascertain  whether  heat  influences  opening  and 
closing  of  flowers,  several  simple  pieces  of  apparatus  were  neces¬ 
sary.  A  tin  box,  2  x  2  x  2  -ft.,  collapsible  like  the  small  tin 
dinner  boxes,  was  constructed  to  be  used  in  field  work,  but  was 
also  found  useful  in  indoor  experiments.  The  top  and  one  side 
were  made  of  glass ;  a  hole  Y\  of  an  inch  in  diameter  was  cut  in 


203 


14 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


another  side  to  admit  a  cork  for  holding  the  thermometer  in 
place.  Two  alcohol  lamps  were  also  found  necessary,  one  to 
heat  the  box  in  which  the  plants  were  placed,  the  other  to  heat 
water  in  a  retort,  and  thus  pass  water  vapor  into  the  box  and 
produce  a  moist  atmosphere.  Self-registering  thermometers  and 
psychrometers  were  of  great  aid  in  taking  readings  of  control 
conditions.  Besides  taking  advantage  of  low  temperatures  in 
the  open,  or  in  cold  rooms,  double- walled  bell  jars  packed  with 
snow  or  ice  were  used  to  obtain  low  temperatures. 

In  all  the  experiments,  strong,  healthy  plants  were  used,  and 
no  experiments  were  performed  with  flowers  cut  off  from  the 
plant.  Wiederscheim,  in  his  researches  of  1904  on  the  crocus 
and  tulip,  and  also  Pfeffer  and  Jost,  have  affirmed  that  they  have 
obtained  the  same  results  with  flowers  cut  off  from  the  plant  as 
with  those  on  the  plant.  Wiederscheim  has  even  performed  ex¬ 
periments  successfully  with  all  but  one  perianth  leaf  removed. 
However,  unless  this  fact  is  thoroughly  proved  as  in  the  instance 
just  mentioned,  it  is  much  safer  to  work  with  the  plant  intact. 

Unless  otherwise  stated,  all  observations  apply  to  flowers,  in 
the  greenhouse. 

.  EXPERIMENTS 

The  plants  directly  experimented  with  were  the  common  dan¬ 
delion  ( Taraxacum  taraxacum),  the  cultivated  four  o’clock 
( Mirabilis  jalapa),  the  cultivated  morning  glory  ( Ipomoea  pur¬ 
purea),  the  evening  star  ( Mentzelia  nuda) ,  the  large  evening 
primrose  ( Pachylophus  caespitosus) ,  and  the  common  flax 
( Linum  usitatissimum) .  Four  of  these  are  ephemeral  types,  one 
hemeranthous  (the  dandelion),  and  one  nyctanthous  (the  eve¬ 
ning  star). 

Hemeranthous  and  nyctanthous  flowers  open  and  close  be¬ 
cause  of  temperature  variations,  and  temperature  variations 
alone.  They  undergo  a  resting  period,  they  sleep,  while  ephem¬ 
eral  flowers  in  closing  end  their  existence,  and  therefore  tem¬ 
perature  variations  only  prolong  or  hasten  this  process  with 
them.  Hemeranthous  and  nyctanthous  types  can  be  made  ephem¬ 
eral,  or  at  least  shorter  lived,  by  the  addition  of  more  heat  than 


204 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


15 


is  normal.  This  is  shown  by  the  difference  in  the  actual  life  of 
a  flower  blooming  in  the  spring  or  in  midsummer:  the  common 
dandelion  lasts  three  to  five  days  in  the  spring,  while  in  mid¬ 
summer  two  days  is  normal,  on  account  of  the  more  intense  life 
of  the  flower  at  that  time.  On  the  other  hand,  ephemeral  flow¬ 
ers  can  be  made  longer  lived  by  the  opposite  process,  the  life 
processes  going  on  less  intensely  than  normal,  as  numerous  ex¬ 
periments  with  the  morning  glory  have  shown. 

The  dandelion,  four  o’clock,  morning  glory,  and  flax  were  ex¬ 
perimented  with  in  the  greenhouse,  the  plants  being  grown  from 
seed,  and  the  evening  star  and  evening  primrose  in  the  open, 
since  it  was  impossible  to  grow  them  in  the  greenhouse  either 
from  seeds  or  by  transplanting  the  young  seedlings.  The  diffi¬ 
culty  probably  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  change  of  climate,  altitude, 
etc.,  was  too  great,  from  9,000  ft.  above  the  sea  at  Halfway, 
Colorado,  to  1,200  ft.  at  Lincoln.  At  any  rate,  it  was  impossible 
to  grow  them  at  all  from  seeds,  even  when  these  were  seasoned. 
The  young  seedlings  of  Mentzelia,  transplanted  in  the  fall  from 
the  mountains  in  Colorado  to  the  university  greenhouse  at  Lin¬ 
coln,  grew  for  a  short  time,  but  soon  died,  while  those  of  the 
evening  primrose  grew  fairly  well  during  the  whole  year  but 
showed  no  tendency  to  flower. 

The  experiments  which  follow  seem  to  me  to  prove  quite  con¬ 
clusively  that  variations  in  the  amount  of  heat  present  are  the 
causes  of  opening  and  closing  movements  among  hemeranthous 
and  nyctanthous  types  which  are  not  ephemeral,  and  also  second¬ 
arily  in  the  latter.  It  is  the  sudden  variations  within  a  few 
hours  which  cause  flower  movement.  Seasonal  variation  in  tem¬ 
perature  effects  opening  and  closing  scarcely  at  all,  even  in  types 
of  flowers  (ainthous)  which  bloom  throughout  an  entire  season 
or  more  as  the  dandelion.  In  May  it  opens  between  7  :oo  and 
8:00  o’clock  in  the  morning,  in  July  between  5:00  and  7:00,  in 
August  between  7:00  and  8:00,  and  in  September  between  7:00 
and  9  :oo.  The  plant  accommodates  itself  gradually  to  these 
changes,  and  opening  and  closing  occur  regularly  with,  perhaps, 
only  a  few  hours  difference  in  time. 


205 


i6 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


The  reason  why  cloudiness  has  been  considered  by  some  in¬ 
vestigators  as  an  important  factor  in  movement  is  probably  be¬ 
cause  a  reduction  in  the  amount  of  light  (cloudiness)  is  nearly 
always  accompanied  by  a  lower  temperature.  The  factors  have 
not  been  carefully  separated. 

Movement  can  not  be  brought  about  by  an  increase  of  turgor 
within  the  cells,  for  with  a  rise  of  150  C.  the  pressure  is  only 
raised  from  100  to  105.5,  and  this,  according  to  Pfeffer,  could 
not  cause  a  movement.  Fifteen  degrees  of  temperature,  Centi¬ 
grade,  are,  in  no  case  that  I  know  of,  necessary  to  effect  open¬ 
ing,  and  hence  sufficient  power  could  not  be  obtained  in  this  way. 
Experiments  were  made  with  flowers  cut  off  from  the  plant  to 
determine  whether  turgescence  was  efficient  in  closing  them. 
Some  were  immersed  in  water,  others  in  different  per  cents  of 
sugar  solutions — all  with  the  same  results — opening  and  closing 
at  the  usual  times. 

It  seems  not  at  all  probable  that  the  expansion  of  the  gases  in 
the  plant  could  increase  turgidity  by  the  rise  of  temperature,  and 
hence  cause  opening,  since,  as  far  as  temperature  is  concerned, 
gaseous  pressure  and  osmotic  pressure  are  governed  by  the  same 
laws.  Moreover,  how  can  night  blooming  flowers  be  explained 
by  this  theory  ?  Lack  of  time  prevented  experimentation  on  such 
an  improbable  cause. 

That  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  within  the  plant  could  be 
stimulated  by  temperature  is  the  last  and  only  plausible  explana¬ 
tion.  Just  how  this  is  done  can  not  be  understood,  but  that  flow¬ 
ers  are  positively  or  negatively  thermotropic  to  certain  tempera¬ 
ture  extremes  seems  evident.  Why  a  certain  flower  is  ephemeral 
while  others  are  hemeranthous  or  nyctanthous  seems  to  me  to 
be  only  partially  answerable.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  char¬ 
acter  is  inherent,  but  the  original  causes  must  have  been  climatic, 
a  flower  closing  for  biological  reasons,  such  as  protection  of  pol¬ 
len  against  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  etc.,  and  loss  of 
water  by  excessive  heat.  An  attempt  was  made  by  Dutrochet 
in  1836,  and  Farmer  in  1902,  to  explain  movement  by  means  of 
the  corolla  (of  Taraxacum  and  Mirabilis  in  the  case  of  the  for¬ 
mer,  and  of  Tulipa  in  that  of  the  latter).  Dutrochet  gives  tur- 


206 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals  17 

gescence  as  the  cause.  Farmer  gives  to  a  localized  tissue  on  the 
outer  face  of  Tulipa  petals  the  power  of  causing  the  perianth 
to  open  as  a  result  of  irritation.  He  says  the  opening  is,  how¬ 
ever,  due  to  the  stimulus  (he  does  not  state  what,  but  denies 
epinastic  and  hyponastic  growth  here)  affecting  the  protoplasm 
and  producing  movement.  Sections  that  I  have  made  through 
the  nerves  of  the  corolla  of  Mirabilis  do  not  show  the  differences 
in  structure,  indicated  by  Dutrochet,  sufficient  to  cause  opening 
and  closing.  He  states  that  the  cellular  tissue  on  the  outside 
would  tend  to  curve  out  by  filling  with  water  in  excess — opening, 
the  fibrous  tissue  on  the  inner  side  tending  to  curve  in  by  oxida¬ 
tion — closing.  Cross-sections  through  the  nerves  of  the  corolla 
of  Mirabilis  show  about  this  proportion  of  the  different  tissues : 
145  /x  of  parenchyma  on  the  outside  of  the  nerve,  exclusive  of 
epidermis,  72  /x  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  on  the  inner  side,  102  /x  of 
parenchyma,  exclusive  of  the  epidermis.  We  could  scarcely  ex¬ 
pect  movements  such  as  Dutrochet  speaks  of  to  occur  as  results 
of  turgescence  of  the  parenchymatous  tissue  when  it  is  present 
on  both  sides  of  the  fibrous  tissue  and  in  such  proportions.  He 
states  also  that  the  morning  out-curving  of  parenchymatous  tis¬ 
sue  (opening)  of  the  dandelion  is  brought  about  by  a  strong 
rise  of  sap  under  the  influence  of  light,  causing  turgescence. 
The  closing,  he  says,  is  due  to  the  diminution  of  this  force,  and 
to  the  gradual  filling  of  the  fibrous  tissue  with  oxygen  during 
the  day.  This  could  not  occur,  since  the  osmotic  pressure  of  the 
cell  sap  is  increased  only  5  per  cent  with  a  rise  in  temperature 
of  150  C.,  and  the  temperature  never  need  change  this  much  to 
induce  closing;  hence,  some  other  cause  must  be  sought. 

HEMERANTHOUS  TYPE 

Experiments  zmth  Taraxacum  taraxacum.  The  flowers  of  the 
dandelion  open  from  7:00  to  8:00  a.m.  in  the  greenhouse  or  in 
the  open  in  May,  and  close  from  5:00  to  6:00  p.m.  On  cool, 
cloudy  days  they  may  not  open  at  all,  and  in  a  sudden  lowering 
of  the  temperature,  usually  accompanied  by  cloudiness,  as  upon 
.the  approach  of  a  storm,  they  may  close  at  once.  Temperature 


1 


2 


207 


Esther  Pearl  Hens  el 


18 

is  in  all  cases,  however,  the  cause  of  movement,  light  and  the 
humidity  of  the  air  in  no  way  influencing  it  except  in  so  far  as 
they  are  necessary  to  the  continued  growth  of  the  plant.  The 
composite  head  acts  as  the  simple  flower. 

Experiments  showing  that  light  does  not  influence  opening 
and  closing.  Plants  with  buds  that  were  ready  to  open,  or  that 
were  open  for  the  first  time,  were  at  6:oo  p.m.  put  into  shade 
tents  made  of  black  cambric  and  of  sufficient  darkness  so  that 
there  was  not  the  slightest  coloration  of  solio  paper  at  3:00  p.m. 
after1  5  minutes  exposure,  when  the  sun  was  shining  brightly 
upon  the  tent.  The  next  morning,  the  flowers  in  the  shade  tents 
were  open  as  wide  as  those  in  normal  sunlight.  In  other  experi¬ 
ments,  the  same  results  were  obtained ;  in  nearly  every  case,  the 
temperature  in  the  shade  tent  was  the  same  as  in  the  sunlight, 
or  a  little  higher. 

Experiments  shelving  that  humidity  has  no  direct  effect  upon 
flower  movement.  Plants  with  flowers  open  one  day  only  were 
used.  At  5  :oo  p.m.  after  the  flowers  had  closed,  one  plant,  well 
watered,  was  placed  in  a  bell  jar  with  the  sides  of  the  bell  jar 
wet  with  water  and  the  pot  standing  in  water.  A  thermometer 
^as  suspended  in  the  jar.  Another  plant  was  placed  in  a  bell 
jar,  which  had  been  dried  by  lying  on  its  side  in  a  very  dry  room 
with  an  air  temperature  of  23 0  C.  and  a  relative  humidity  of  25 
per  cent.  The  pot  was  wrapped  in  rubber  cloth  so  that  there 
could  be  no  evaporation  from  the  pot  or  soil,  and  a  flat  dish  filled 
with  calcium  chloride  placed  beside  it  to  absorb  any  moisture 
given  off.  A  thermometer  was  suspended  in  this  jar  also.  The 
following  morning,  both  flowers  were  open  at  8:00  a.m.,  as  were 
those  left  in  normal  conditions.  The  temperature  in  the  dry  jar 
was  27.6°  C.,  in  the  moist  one  25.6°  C.,  and  in  the  normal  one 
210  C.  with  a  relative  humidity  of  54  per  cent.  The  same  results 
were  obtained  several  times,  so  that  this  experiment  also  seems 
to  prove  conclusively  that  opening  is  not  dependent  directly  upon 
the  humidity  of  the  air. 

Experiments  showing  that  variations  in  temperature  produce 
opening  and  closing.  I  have  been  able  to  open  and  close  dande¬ 
lion  flowers  before  the  usual  time  by  varying  the  amount  of  heat . 


208 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


19 


present,  but  never  to  make  the  flowers  stay  open  longer  than 
usual  by  increasing  the  amount  of  heat  to  a  little  more  than  nor¬ 
mal.  The  point  at  which  opening  occurs  seems  to  be  from  15 0 
to  180  C.,  in  the  greenhouse,  generally  nearer  the  higher  limit. 

In  the  experiments  which  follow,  relative  humidities  will  usu¬ 
ally  accompany  the  temperatures,  simply  as  additional  proof  that 
they  are  not  influential  in  causing  movement.  For  convenience, 
different  parts  of  the  greenhouse  in  which  experiments  were 
performed  will  be  indicated,  especially  in  those  cases  where  the 
plants  are  transferred  from  one  part  to  another  to  obtain  the 
different  conditions  present  there,  thus :  south  house,  north  house, 
east  house,  middle  house.  The  situation  of  plants  placed  out  of 
doors  will  be  indicated  as  open,  that  of  those  placed  in  the  tin  box 
with  increased  temperature  as  zvarm  chamber ,  those  placed  in 
double  walled  bell  jars  packed  with  snow  or  ice,  cold  chamber, 
those  in  bell  jars  with  saturated  air,  moist  chamber,  those  in  dry 
bell  jars,  dry  chamber,  while  that  of  those  in  the  compartment 
made  of  black  cambric  will  be  indicated  as  shade  tent. 

Flowers  which  do  not  open  at  the  usual  tin*?  in  the  morning 
because  of  low  temperature,  can  be  opened  in  from  fifteen  min¬ 
utes  to  an  hour  by  placing  the  plant  in  the  warm  chamber  de¬ 
scribed  on  page  13. 


SOUTH  HOUSB 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum 

Condition 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum. 

Mar.  25,  1904 
Mar.  25,  1904 

10:45  a  m. 

%  open  ... 
%  open  . . . 

15.5°C. 

67.4* 

%  open. . . 

11:  0  a  M. 

Wide  open 

36.5°C. 

39  4$ 

Mar.  25,  ’904 

12:00  m. 

Wide  open 

2J.8°C. 

26$ 

On  March  30,  1904,  a  cloudy  day,  dandelion  flowers  remained 
closed  all  the  morning  in  the  greenhouse.  When  the  temperature 
was  artificially  increased  in  the  warm  chamber,  in  dry  air  or  with 
vapor,  opening  occurred  as  in  the  several  cases  cited  below. 


209 


20 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Mar  30,  1934 
Mar.  30,  It 04 
Mar.  30,  190t 
April  7,1904 
April  7, 1904 
April  7,  1901 
April  7,1904 
April  15, 1904 
April  5,19(14 
April  15, 1904 

11:00  a.m. 
11:30  a.m. 
12:00  m. 
8:00  a.m. 
8:15  a.m. 
8:40  a.m. 
11:00  a.m. 
1U:00  A.M. 
10:20  a.m. 
11:00  a.m. 

Closed.... 
Closed.... 
Closed .... 
Closed. . . . 
Closed .... 
Closed .... 
Opening  . 
Close  l . . . . 
Closed.... 
Open  .... 

16° 

16° 

16° 

13° 

14.8° 

17° 

17° 

83# 

83# 

83# 

84# 

26.5# 

51# 

36# 

Closed.... 

Open . 

Open . 

C  losed .... 
Ji  Open  .. 
Open . 

43° 

43° 

43° 

29° 

29° 

29° 

Dry- 

Dry 

Dry 

Dry 

Dry 

Closed.. . . 
Open . 

20° 

22%° 

39# 

34# 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp 

1  Rel.  Hum. 

Jan.  30,  1905. 

10:30  a.m. 

Bud  y2  open 

19.8° 

63# 

Bud  y<t  open 

23° 

Moist 

Tan.  30,  1935. 

10:55  a.m. 

Bud  yz  open 

19  8° 

62# 

y2  +  open. . 

25  9° 

Moist 

Jan.  30,  1905. 

11:12  a.m. 

Bud  y2  open 

20° 

60# 

Open . 

28° 

Moist 

Open  dandelions  when  put  into  the  cold  chamber  do  not  ordi¬ 
narily  close  at  night  in  the  manner  of  those  under  normal  condi¬ 
tions.  They  look  perfectly  natural  and  do  not  wither  on  removal, 
but  seem  to  be  in  a  rigid  condition.  The  change  from  normal 
temperature  to  that  of  the  cold  chamber  (190  or  21 0  to  20  or 
50  C.)  is  probably  so  extreme  that  the  flower  is  unable  to  react 
to  the  stimulus  of  the  variation  in  temperature,  for,  when  a  plant 
with  open  flowers  is  put  out  of  doors  or  in  another  room  where 
the  temperature  difference  is  not  so  great,  closing  occurs  very 
readily  at  any  time  of  day.  When  the  temperature  in  the  cold 
chamber  was  not  too  low,  closing  occurred  in  certain  instances 
at  about  the  normal  time. 

Following  are  two  instances  of  this  sort  with  figures  showing 
normal  closing: 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

COLD  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp 

Rpl  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Feb  22,  1905 
Feb.  22,  1905 
Feb.  22,  1905 
Feb.  22,  1905 
Feb.  22,  1905 

9:00  a.m. 
10:30  a.m. 
11:30  a.m. 
2:30  p.m. 
5:00  p.m 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

y2  closed . . 

19.4° 

25.6° 

27  3° 

31  7° 
25° 

57.5# 

56# 

51# 

44  5# 

57# 

Open . 

Op~n . 

open . 

%  closed  . 
?4+closed 

io° 

10° 

10° 

17° 

210 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


21 


SOOTH  HOUSE 

COLD  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Feb.  27,  1905 
Feb.  27,  1905 
Feb.  27,  19)5 
Feb.  27,  1905 
Feb.  27,  1905 
Feb.  27,  19.5 

10:00  a.m. 
10:45  a.m. 
12:00  m. 
1:25  p.m. 
3:00  p.m. 
5:00  p.m. 

Open . 

24.8° 

45$ 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open  .  ... 
34  closed.. 

25° 

26° 

23° 

19° 

41$ 

8.5$ 

35$ 

43$ 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

34  closed.. 

12.5° 

12  5° 
12.4° 
14.4° 

The  following  data  show  the  effect  of  a  lowering  of  tempera¬ 
ture  such  that  closing  occurs  from  2  to  6  hours  earlier  than  nor¬ 
mal.  In  certain  cases  the  lower  temperature  of  a  different  part 
of  the  greenhouse  was  made  use  of,  in  others,  the  open: 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

EAST  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  i  um. 

Jan.  21,  1905 
Jan.  21,  1905 
Jan.  2‘,  1905 
Jan.  24,  1905 
Jan.  24,  1905 
Jan.  24,  1905 
Jan.  24,  19)5 
Feb.  2,  1905 
Feb.  2,  1905 
Feb.  2,  190-5 
Feb.  2,  1905 
Feb.  4,  1905 
Feb.  4,  1905 
Feb.  9,  1905 
Feb.  9,  1905 
Feb.  9,  1905 
Feb.  9,  1905 

10:00  a.m 
11:00  a.m. 

Open . 

18.6° 

52$ 

Open . 

34  closed  . 
34  closed  . 
34  open. .. 
34  open . . . 
Closed.... 
Closed .... 
34  open . . . 
34  Open. .. 

closed _ 

Closed .... 
Not  open. 
Closed .... 

Open . 

Closing. .. 
Closed .. . . 
Closed .... 

190 

14° 

17° 

7.8° 

1  5° 

6  5°. 
1.4° 

8° 

10° 

8.6° 

7  5° 
13.5° 
16.2° 
10.5° 
13° 
14.8° 

9° 

(1:45  a  m. 
10:30  a.m. 
12:00  m 

1:30  p.m. 

34  open. .. 

13° 

43$ 

93.?$ 

88  4$ 

5:00  p  m. 

10:30  a.m. 
12:00  M. 

3:0!)  p  M. 
5:30  p.m. 

34  open. .. 

18° 

55$ 

10:00  a.m. 
5:00  p.m. 
9:30  a.m. 
11:00  A  m. 
2:4i>  p.m. 
5:00  p.m. 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open  .  ... 
34  closed  . 

16.8° 

18.6° 

12  8° 
2J.5° 
20° 
18.2° 

58$ 

•  63$ 

58$ 

20$ 

41$ 

63.5$ 

#  - 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

NORTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Feb.  25,  19C5. 

9:30  a.m. 

Open . 

23  4° 

51$ 

Feb.  25,  1905. 

10:30  a  m. 

Open . 

16.4° 

49$ 

Open . 

19.4° 

82.6$ 

Feb.  25,  1905. 

1:10  p.m. 

Open . 

29.9° 

52.5$ 

C  pen . 

16.8° 

73.4$ 

Feb.  25,  1905. 

5:0!)  p.m. 

Open . 

•6.4° 

54$ 

%  closed. . 

23° 

68.5$ 

211 


22 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


SOUTH  HOUSli 

OPEN 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Feb.  25,  1903 

9:30  a.m. 

y  open. .. 

19° 

Closed .... 

3.5° 

Feb.  25,  1933 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

19° 

Closed .... 

Feb.  25,  1903 

11:30  a.m. 

Open . 

20° 

Closed .... 

Feb.  25,  1933 

1:15  p  m. 

Open . 

19° 

Closed.... 

(Taken 

into  green- 

Feb.  2'),  1933 

1:45  p.m. 

Open . 

19° 

y  open . . . 

19° 

[house) 

Feb  25,  IV  03 

2:00  p.m. 

Open . 

19° 

%  open. .. 

19° 

Feb  25  1903 

2:15  p.m. 

Open . 

18° 

Open . 

18° 

Feb.  2  >,  1903 

4:00  p.m. 

Open . 

18° 

Open . 

13° 

Feb.  25,  1903 

5:00  p.m. 

Open . 

17° 

34,  closed  . 

17° 

Feb.  25  1903 

6:00  p.m. 

%  closed  . 

15° 

+  closed  . 

15° 

Feb.  25,  1903 

7:30  p.m. 

Closed .... 

14° 

% -j-closed 

14° 

Feb  21,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 

Open . 

25° 

50$ 

Feb.  21,  1905 

11:10  a.m. 

Open . 

Open . 

13° 

Feb.  21,  1905 

12:00  M. 

Open . 

Open . 

14° 

Feb  21,  1905 

3:0  i  P.M. 

Open . 

26° 

53$ 

34  closed.. 

7  5° 

Feb.  21,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

y2  closed  . 

20  8° 

60$ 

%  closed . . 

6° 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

OPEN 

NORTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Feb.  27,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 

Open  . . 

24.8° 

45$ 

Feb  27,  19)5 

10:30  a.m 

Open  . . 

Open  . . 

11° 

82$ 

Feb.  27,  1905 

10:45  a.m 

Open  . . 

Open  . . 

Open  . . 

Feb.  27,  1905 

12:00  M. 

Open  .. 

25° 

41$ 

Open  .. 

13° 

74$ ' ' 

Open  . . 

21.8° 

56.2$ 

Feb.  27,  1905 

1:25  p.m. 

Open  . . 

•26° 

38.5$ 

Open  . . 

12.5° 

58.4$ 

Open  .. 

21.2° 

71.8$ 

Feb.  27,  1905 

3:00  p.m 

Open  . . 

23° 

35$ 

%  clo’d 

13.5° 

68  4$ 

Open  . . 

20  8° 

64.6$ 

Feb.  27,  1905 

5:00  p.m 

34  clo’d 

19.4° 

43$  ■ 

Closed. 

13.5° 

53  8$ 

34  clo’d 

17.4° 

68.9$ 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

OPEN 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

March  1,  1905 

8:30  a.m. 

Open . 

25° 

61$ 

March  1,  1905 

9:30  a.m. 

Open . 

Open . 

5° 

78.4$ 

March  1,  19)5 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

34 closed . . 

12° 

63.-i$ 

March  1,  1905 

11:30  a.m. 

Open . 

27.8° 

54.5$ 

34+ closed 

14° 

73.3$ 

March  1,  1905 

2:30  p.m. 

Open . 

27° 

47.5$ 

%  closed . . 

16° 

52$ 

March  1,  1905 

4:35  p.m. 

Open . 

21.6° 

54  5$ 

Closed .... 

15.5° 

52$ 

March  2,  19  35 

8:35  a.m. 

Open . 

17.2° 

60$ 

Open . 

11° 

March  2,  1905 

9:45  a.m. 

Open . 

23  4° 

61$ 

Open . 

15° 

March  2,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

Open . 

24° 

40$ 

y closed . . 

20° 

March  6,  1905 

9:00  a.m. 

Open . 

21  2° 

65.5$ 

Open . 

1  8° 

92.2$  N 

March  6,  19)5 

11:00  a.m. 

Open . 

24  5° 

66$ 

Open . 

3° 

77.5$ 

March  6,  1905 

1:30  p.m. 

Open . 

27.4° 

64$ 

%  +closed 

5.4° 

79.7$  , 

March  6,  1905 

3:45  P.M 

Open . 

20° 

62$ 

%  -(-closed 

6° 

87.2$  v 

March  6,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

Closing. .. 

22° 

68.5$ 

54  + closed 

6.8° 

74.4$  V 

212 


i 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


23 


SOUl'H  HOUSE 

OPEN 

NORTH  HOU 

-E 

Date 

Hour 

Cond 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Ma  ch  9,  1905 

8:45  a.m 

Open  . 

192° 

59$ 

Closed . 

7° 

Va  open 

18.4° 

M  arch  9,  1905 

11:00  a.m 

Open  . . 

23.0° 

53$ 

Open  . 

14° 

Ya  open 

19.4° 

March  9,  1905 

1:30  p.m 

open  .,. 

24° 

3s%$ 

Open  . . 

13° 

Va  open 

21.0° 

March  9,  1 9  )5 
March  9,  1905 

1:30  p.m 
5:00  p  m. 

Open  . . 
%  clo'd 

22.8° 

16° 

41$ 

iVA% 

Open  .. 
Open  . . 

10° 

7° 

Open  . . 
Open  . . 

18.9° 

17.2° 

Light  readings  also  were  taken  by  exposing  solio  paper  to  the 
light  to  show  that  the  intensity  did  not  influence  opening  or  clos¬ 
ing.  Following  are  some  data  regarding,  the  amount  of  light 
present  at  the  times  of  opening  and  closing.  If  we  take  the  tables 
just  preceding,  giving  temperature  and  humidity  values,  and 
observe  the  time  at  which  closing  occurs  in  the  different  situa¬ 
tions,  and  note  at  the  same  time  the  relative  light  values,  light 
can  be  seen  at  once  to  be  of  no  value  in  effecting  closing,  since  it 
is  strongest  where  flowers  close  earliest.  The  relative  values  are 
obtained  by  comparing  the  exposures  on  solio  paper  in  a  photom¬ 
eter,  for  the  different  situations,  with  a  sun  standard  taken  at 
noon  on  a  certain  clear  day,  e.  g.,  March  21,  1905. 

On  February  27,  1905,  dandelions  were  not  closed  in  the  green¬ 
house  at  3  :oo  p.m.  when  the  relative  light  value  was  .05,  while 
out  of  doors  they  were  two-thirds  closed  and  the  light  value  was 
.1.  At  5:00  p.m.,  dandelions  in  the  greenhouse  were  one-third 
closed  with  a  light  value  of  .02,  while  out  of  doors  they  were 
entirely  closed,  and  the  light  was  .05.  In  the  stronger  light  they 
j  closed  earlier. 

On  March  1,  1905,  open  dandelions  put  out  of  doors  at  9:30 
a.m.  were  one-third  closed  at  10:30  a.m.  with  a  light  value  of  .5, 
while  indoors  they  were  open,  and  the  light  was  .1.  At  4:35 
1  p.m.,  those  in  the  greenhouse  were  still  open,  with  light  at  .03, 
while  out  of  doors  they  were  closed  with  light  at  .06. 

On  March  6,  1905,  at  1 130  p.m.,  the  open  dandelions  put  out 
of  doors  at  9  :oo  a.m.  were  two-thirds  or  more  closed,  the  light 
being  .15,  while  indoors  at  the  same  time,  where  the  light  was  .03, 
they  were  open  as  usual. 


213 


24 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


OTHER  HEMERANTHOUS  TYPES 

The  flowers  of  Gentiana  parryi,  the  large  blue  gentian,  open 
for  two  or  more  days  only  during  the  day  from  8:oo  to  10:00 
a.m.  and  close  from  5:00  to  6:00  p.m.  It  is  very  noticeable  that 
they  do  not  open  on  cloudy,  cold,  or  rainy  days  and  that  they 
close  on  the  approach  of  rain.  Detached  flowers  will  stay  open 
in  the  house  at  night  but  will  close  out  of  doors;  if  brought  in¬ 
doors  they  will  open  in  the  dark.  Gentiana  acuta  behaves  in 
much  the  same  way,  and  opens  at  about  the  same  time.  It  also 
stays  open  for  almost  the  same  number  of  days,  possibly  a  little 
longer. 

I  carried  on  a  few  experiments  with  tulip  flowers,  but  was 
unable  to  do  much  with  them  as  they  did  not  seem  to  close  at 
night.  They  were  forced  bulbs  potted  for  me  by  a  local 
greenhouse.  I  did  succeed  in  opening  a  few  with  increased  tem¬ 
perature  but  not  with  V20  C.  difference,  such  as  Pfeffer  says  is 
possible;  nor  was  it  possible  to  close  the  flowers  with  either  a 
moderate  or  extreme  degree  of  cold. 

NYCTANTHOUS  TYPES 

Experiments  with  Mentselia  nnda.  The  flowers  of  this  plant 
open  from  3  :oo  to  5  :oo  p.m.  and  are  closed  again  the  following 
morning  between  5  :oo  and  6:00  a.m.  This  is  repeated  for  3  to  5 
days.  The  sepals  do  not  close  around  the  corolla  after  once 
opening,  but  stay  reflexed.  When  first  opened,  the  flower  emits 
a  fragrance  which  is  lacking  after  a  few  hours,  a  fact  probably 
in  some  way  connected  with  pollination.  On  rainy  days,  when 
it  is  cool  and  cloudy,  the  opening  is  two  hours  or  more  earlier 
than  on  bright  sunshiny  days.  The  experiments  which  I  was 
able  to  carry  on  were  all  performed  in  the  fields,  in  the  moun¬ 
tains  at  Halfway,  Colorado.  The  gravel  slides  on  which  Ment- 
zelia  grows  experience  very  great  extremes  of  temperature  on 
their  surface :  during  a  single  day,  from  io°  C.  between  6  :oo  and 
7:00  a.m.  to  as  high  as  46°  C.  at  11:00  a.m.  or  250  to  350  C. 
between  2  :oo  and  3  :oo  p.m.  On  account  of  this  fact,  I  took'  soil 
samples  of  the  gravel  at  the  time  the  flowers  opened  or  a  little 


214 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


25 


before,  and  also  a  little  before  their  closing,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  water-content  of  the  soil  had  anything  to  do  with 
the  phenomenon.  No  differences  in  per  cents  were  obtained  that 
could  be  construed  as  influencing  movement  by  increasing  the 
turgescence  of  the  cells.  The  per  cents  varied  very  little,  from 
4-5  per  cent  being  the  normal  in  July  and  August  for  root  depth. 

Prather  crude  experiments  were  also  carried  on  to  measure  the 
amount  of  transpiration  in  shoots  bearing  flowers  about  to  open, 
and  also  those  about  to  close.  Vigorous  blooming  shoots  were 
cut  off  and  placed  in  large  test  tubes  well  stoppered,  the  shoot 
fitting  into  the  stopper  through  a  split  in  the  latter,  the  end  rest¬ 
ing  for  an  inch  or  more  in  the  water.  The  amount  of  water 
transpired  was  practically  the  same  during  the  day  and  night, 
showing  that  turgescence  is  not  the  efficient  stimulus. 

I  also  tried  shading  the  plants  continuously  to  induce  an  earlier 
opening,  but  it  was  not  possible  to  get  a  sufficient  change  in  tem¬ 
perature  by  this  means. 

Relative  humidities  taken  just  at  the  top  of  the  plant  at  the 
time  of  opening  vary  extremely,  as  also  those  taken  at  the  time 
of  closing.  When  the  flowers  were  opening,  relative  humidity 
values  from  17.1  per  cent  to  95.6  per  cent  were  obtained  between 
2:45  and  6:45  p.m.  ;  when  the  flowers  were  closing  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  between  6:00  and  7:00  a.m.,  values  from  54.2  per  cent  to 
63.8  per  cent  were  obtained.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  water- 
content  of  the  air  does  not  influence  opening,  as  neither  do  water- 
content  of  the  soil  nor  light.  That  temperature  is  the  controlling 
factor  can  only  be  deduced  from  temperature  readings  taken  at 
the  times  of  opening  and  closing,  for,  as  mentioned  earlier  in 
the  paper,  it  was  impossible  to  grow  Mentzelia  in  the  greenhouse, 
and  in  the  field  conditions  were  extremely  hard  to  control.  As 
to  figures  showing  temperatures  at  which  the  flowers  open  in  the 
afternoon  from  2:45  to  7:45  p.m.,  the  range  is  from  iMA°  to  230 
C.,  while  the  corresponding  range  of  temperatures  when  they 
dose  in  the  morning  is  from  8°  to  16.80  C. 


215 


26 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


EPHEMERAL  TYPES 

Only  three  ephemeral,  day  blooming  flowers  were  experi¬ 
mented  with:  the  morning  glory  ( Ipomoea  purpurea ),  the  com¬ 
mon  flax  ( Linum  usitatissimum) ,  and  the  yellow  wood  sorrel 
(Oxalls  stneta )  ;  the  other  two  were  night  bloomers,  the  evening 
primrose  ( Pachylophus  caespitosus )  and  the  four  o’clock  ( Mira - 
bills  jalapa). 

Experiments  with  Ipomoea  purpurea.  Ipomoea  opens  from 
5:00  to  6:00  a.m.  and  closes  as  early  as  10:00  or  ti:oo  a.m. 
when  it  is  quite  warm.  (All  experiments  were  performed  in  the 
greenhouse.)  Generally,  however,  closing  occurs  between  1  :oo 
and  3  :oo  p.m.  Contrary  to  the  results  with  the  dandelion,  it  was 
always  possible  to  keep  the  flowers  open  for  a  considerable  time 
(24  hours  at  least)  beyond  the  normal,  by  placing  the  plant  in 
a  temperature  as  low  as  3  to  40  C. ;  also  to  close  the  flowers 
earlier  than  their  time  by  increased  temperature  (28  to  32 0  C.) 
with  dry  air  or  with  water  vapor  introduced.  On  the  other  hand, 
heat  does  not  work  here  as  a  direct  stimulus,  but  rather  only 
to  hasten  the  growth  processes.  The  following  tables  show  how 
closing  is  hindered  in  temperatures  lower  than  the  normal: 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

EAST  HOUSE 

NORTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Dec.  16,  1904 
Dec.  16,  1904 

10:30  a.m 

Open  . . 
Open .. 

23° 

54.5$ 

53$ 

Open  .. 

Open  ,. 

11:00  a.m. 

20.7° 

Open  . . 

17.2° 

Open  .. 

17.7° 

Dec.  16  1904 

12:U0  M. 

Open  .. 

23.2° 

50.5$ 

Closing 

17.2° 

Open .. 

17° 

Dec.  16.  1904 

1:30  p.m. 

Open  . . 

20° 

49.5$ 

Closing 

17.2° 

Open  . . 

19° 

Dec.  16,  19)4 

3:00  p.m. 

Open  . . 

17.4° 

49.5$ 

Closing 

16.2° 

Open  .. 

18  9° 

Dec.  16,  19)4 

5:00  p.m. 

%  clo’d 

15.4° 

50.5$ 

Closing 

13.8° 

Open  .. 

17.8° 

. 

Dec.  16,  1904 

6:00  p.m. 

%  clo'd 

16.2° 

51.5$ 

Closing 

13.8° 

Open  . . 

17.4° 

Dec.  16,  1904 

9:00  p.m. 

closed. 

15° 

41$ 

Closed . 

13.8° 

Closed. 

16.2° 

216 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


27 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

EAST  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Dec.  19,  1904 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

22°  ■ 

50$ 

Open . 

15° 

55.5$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

12:00  m. 

Open . 

16° 

55$ 

( >pen, . 

10  4° 

82.8$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

2:30  p.m. 

Open . 

20° 

63$ 

Open . 

11.2° 

68.5$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

4:00  p.m 

Open . 

21° 

59$ 

Open . 

11.6° 

73$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

6:00  p.m. 

%  of  fls  cl. 

22.6° 

57$ 

Open . 

16.4° 

(3$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

7:00  p.m. 

%  of  fls.  cl. 

23° 

56.5$ 

Open . 

16.4° 

63  2$ 

Dec.  19,  1904 

9:00  p.m. 

All  closed. 

24  7° 

55.5$ 

Open _ _ 

17.5° 

60.8$ 

Dec.  20,  1904 

3:30  p.m. 

Bud  op’ng 

13° 

58$ 

Bud  op’ng 

10.6° 

88.2$ 

Dec.  20,  1904 

8:00  p.m. 

Open . 

16.5° 

81.1$ 

Dec.  21,  1904 

10:00  a.m. 

Beg  to  cl. 

12.2° 

'  88.2$ 

Dec.  21,  1904 

12:90  M. 

34  closed . . 

13.4° 

83.8$ 

Dec.  21,  1904 

2:45  p.m. 

%  -{-closed 

15.4° 

85.7$ 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

NOR  1 H  HOUSE 

COLD  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Tetter 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Feb.  25,  1905 
Feb.  25,  1905 
Feb.  25,  1905 
Feb.  25,  1905 
Feb.  25,  1905 

9:30  a.m. 
10:30  a.m. 
10:35  a.m. 
1:10  p.m. 
5:00  p.m. 

Open  . . 
34  clo’d 
34  clo’d 
34  +  cld 
Closed . 

22.8° 

26.4° 

27° 

29.9° 

26.4° 

51$ 

49$ 

50% 

52.5$ 

54$ 

Open  . . 
34  clo’d 
94  + cl. 

16.8° 

23° 

73.4$ 

68.5$ 

Open  . . 
Open  . . 
Open  .. 

*3-3*8 

Moist 

Moist 

Moist 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

NORTH  HOUSE 

OPEN 

Date 

Hour 

Cond 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

March  6,  1905 

9:00  a.m. 

Open  .  .< 

21.2° 

65.5$ 

Open  . . 

19.4° 

40.1$ 

Open  .. 

1.8° 

92.2$ 

March  6,  1905 

11:00  a.m. 

Open  . . 

2T5° 

66$ 

Open  . . 

19.6° 

73.5$ 

Open . . 

3° 

77.5$ 

March  6,  1905 

1:30  p.m. 

34  clo’d 

27  4° 

64$ 

34  clo’d 

20.8° 

82. 1$ 

Open  . . 

5  4° 

79.7$ 

March  6,  1905 

3:45  p.m. 

Closed 

20° 

62$ 

%  clo’d 

17.4° 

81$ 

*Chil’d 

6° 

87.2$ 

March  6,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

Closed. 

22° 

68.5$ 

Closed . 

17.6° 

68$ 

*  Taken  into  the  south  house,  where  it  opened  in  perfect  condition  at  a  temperature  of 
22°  and  a  relative  humidity  of  68.5$. 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

NORTH  HOUSE 

SHADE  TENT 

Date 

Hour 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

March  8,  1905 

8:30  a.m. 

Open  . . 

18.6° 

57$ 

Open  . . 

19° 

March  8,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 

Open  . . 

19  5° 

56$ 

Open  . . 

19° 

Open  . . 

23° 

March  8,  1905 

10:30  a.m. 

Open  . . 

22° 

54$ 

Open  . . 

19° 

Open  . . 

25° 

March  8,  1905 

11:45  a.m. 

Open  . 

27.2° 

45$ 

Open  . . 

19° 

Open  . . 

32  4° 

March  8,  1905 

1:45  p.m. 

Nearly 

all  el’d 

26.8° 

50$ 

Closing 

20.4° 

Closing 

31.8° 

March  8,  1905 

2:45  p.m. 

Closed . 

25.8° 

46$ 

Closing 

20.8° 

63  2$ 

Closed . 

31.2° 

57. 9$ 

March  8,  1905 

4:45  p.m. 

Closed . 

19.1° 

43$ 

Closed . 

18.5° 

69.3$ 

Closed. 

23° 

217 


28 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


The  third  column  of  the  last  series,  March  8,  1905,  shows  very 
well  the  negative  effect  of  light.  The  tent  was  made  of  black 
cambric,  which  produced  so  diffuse  a  light  that  an  exposure  of 
solio  paper  for  five  minutes  at  3  :oo  p.m.  on  a  bright  day,  Decem¬ 
ber  I,  1904,  resulted  in  no  coloration  whatever  of  the  sensitive 
paper.  Here,  the  flowers  close  as  early  as  those  situated  where 
the  light  is  more  intense. 

Following  are  three  instances  out  of  a  dozen  or  more  showing 
the  effect  of  increased  temperature : 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum 

Condition. 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum. 

Dec.  31,  1904 

9:45  a.m. 

Open  .... 

18° 

51% 

Dec.  31,  1904 

10:00  a.m. 

Open . 

19° 

56% 

Open . 

30° 

Moist 

Dec.  31,  1904 

12:15  p.m. 

Open . 

21° 

51.5% 

34  closed . . 

37.2° 

M  oist 

Dec.  31,  1904 

2:00  p.m. 

Open . 

23° 

45.5% 

Closed .... 

37.2° 

Moist 

Jan.  11,  1905 

9:00  A.M. 

Open . 

22° 

60.5% 

Jan.  11,  1905 

10:45  a.m. 

O  pen  . . 

Open . 

Jan.  11,  1905 

11:00  A.M. 

Open  . 

Open . 

Jan.  11,1905 

12:00  M. 

Open . 

22.4° 

64.5% 

34  closed. . 

31° 

Moist 

Jan.  11,  1905 

1:45  p.m. 

Open . 

22° 

59% 

Closed .... 

31° 

Moist 

Jan.  11,  1905 

4:30  p.m. 

Closing. . . 

20.8° 

51.5% 

March  6,  1905 

9:00  a  .m. 

Open  .  . 

21.2° 

65.5% 

March  6,  1905 

9:30  a.m. 

C  pen  .  . 

Open . 

March6,  1905 

9:45  a.m. 

Open  .... 

Open . 

23° 

Moist 

March  6,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 

Open . 

Open . 

28° 

Moist 

March  6,  1905 

11:00  a.m. 

Open . 

24.5° 

66% 

34  closed . . 

c0° 

Moist 

March  6,  1905 

1:30  p.m. 

34  closed . . 

27.4° 

64% 

Closed.... 

32° 

Moist 

March  6,  1905 

3:45  p.m. 

i  losed .  . 

20° 

62% 

March  6,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

Closed .... 

17° 

68% 

The  relative  light  values  may  be  considered  here  also.  On 
February  25,  1905,  at  10:30  a.m.,  light  was  o  in  .the  north 
house,  and  .33  in  the  south  house;  in  the  former  the  flowers 
were  still  open,  while  in  the  latter  they  were  beginning  to  wither. 
At  1  :io  p.m.  in  the  north  house,  the  flowers  were  beginning  to 
close  in  darkness  (o),  while  in  the  south  house  they  were  nearly 
closed  in  a  light  value  of  .33.  At  5  :oo  p.m.  in  the  north  house, 
with  light  o,  flowers  were  nearly  closed,  while  in  the  south  house, 
light  .01,  they  were  entirely  closed. 

On  March  6,  1905,  at  9:00  a.m.,  morning  glories  were  open 
in  the  north  house  with  light  o,  in  the  south  house  with  light 
.012,  and  in  the  open  with  light  .06.  At  1 130  p.m.,  they  were 


218 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


29 


beginning  to  close  in  the  north  house  with  light  .003,  and  in  the 
south  house  with  light  .04,  while  in  the  open,  with  light  .15  they 
were  still  open. 

These  figures  all  go  to  show  that  light  is  not  effective  in  open¬ 
ing  and  closing  flowers,  for  closing  takes  place  latest  in  nearly 
every  instance  where  there  is  the  most  light,  this  being  where  it 
is  also  coldest.  The  experiment  of  March  8,  1905,  in  the  shade 
tent,  given  on  page  27,  shows  that  closing  occurs  as  soon  in  the 
darkness  as  in  the  light.  Morning  glories,  ready  to  open,  when 
put  in  a  dark  tent  at  night  and  kept  there  all  of  the  following 
day,  behave  exactly  in  opening  and  closing  as  they  do  in  normal 
light  with  the  same  temperature. 

It  was  quite  noticeable  that  when  buds  ready  to  open  were  put 
in  too  low  a  temperature  (130  or  less)  they  did  not  open  at  all 
but  assumed  the  closed  position  as  normally  after  opening;  the 
temperature  was  too.  low  for  the  ordinary  processes  of  life  to  be 
carried  on. 

Experiments  to  show  that  humidity  of  the  air  is  not  the  cause 
of  opening  and  closing.  On  November  10,  1904,  at  5  :oo  p.m., 
three  plants,  each  with  buds  almost  open,  were  put  into  different 
bell  jars  with  light  and  heat  practically  the  same  in  all  three 
cases.  One  was  a  moist  bell  jar  and  one  a  dry  bell  jar,  with  the 
pot  wrapped  in  a  rubber  cloth,  etc.  Still  others  were  left  out 
from  under  the  bell  jars.  At  8:00  a.m.  on  November  11,  1904, 
all  the  buds  were  open  with  a  temperature  of  21 0  C.  On  No¬ 
vember  14,  1904,  at  5  :oo  p.m.,  a  similar  experiment  was  per¬ 
formed  with  the  same  results. 

Experiments  with  Linum  usitatissimum.  The  flowers  of  this 
plant  open  from  5:00  to  8:00  a.m.  and  close  from  10:00  a.m. 
to  2  :oo  p.m.,  or,  rather,  they  drop  their  petals  at  that  time  if  there 
is  sufficient  movement  of  the  air  to  bring  about  the  process. 
Otherwise,  the  petals  wither  and  dry  in  place.  Flax  flowers 
can  be  caused  to  drop  their  petals  sooner  than  normal  by  in¬ 
creasing  the  temperature.  Following  are  tables  showing  the 
results  of  such  experiments : 


219 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


o 


-  SOUTH  HOUSE 

W/>  RM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum 

Condition 

’i  emp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

April  6,  .1905 
April  6,  1 905 
April  6,  1905 
April  6,  1905 
April  6,  1905 
April  6,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 

9:45  a.m. 
9:50  a.m. 
10:15  a.m. 
10:45  a.m. 
11:25  a.m. 
2:30  p.m. 
8:35  a.m. 
9:00  a.m. 
9:25  a.m. 
11:00  a.m. 
12:00  m. 

Open . 

26° 

'  38* 

Open . 

Open  .... 
Open . 

30° 

33° 

34.5° 

35° 

Moist 

Moist 

Moist 

Moist 

Open . 

Open . 

Open  ... 
Pet.  fal’ng 
Open . 

28° 

28.5° 

28° 

21.2° 

21  2° 

21 ' 5° 
22° 
23.5° 

36* 

33* 

38* 

36* 

36* 

35.5* 

35* 

32.5* 

Open . 

Pet.  fal’ng 

Open . 

Open . 

Open  .  . . 
Pet.  fal’ng 

Open . 

Pet.  fal’ng 

!  o 

nn 

Moist 

Moist 

Temperature,  when  lower  than  the  normal,  prolongs  the  ex¬ 
istence  of  the  flower,  as  is  readily  seen  on  mornings  when  it  is 
cooler  than  usual  because  of  cloudiness,  etc.  In  this  event,  the 
flower  lives  on  into  the  afternoon. 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel  Hum. 

Feb.  1,  1905 

8:40  a.m. 

Yz  open. .. 

10° 

62.5* 

Feb.  1,  1905 

12:00  m. 

%  open. .. 

19° 

51* 

Feb.  1,  1905 

3:00  p.m. 

%  -(-  open. 

16.4° 

40* 

Feb.  1,  1905 

5:0 )  p.m. 

Closing. .. 

13° 

53* 

Mar  28,  1905 

8:30  a.m. 

Open . 

17.5° 

71* 

Mar.  28,  1905 

9:30  A  m. 

Open . 

19.1° 

59* 

Mar.  28,  1905 

10:20  a.m. 

Open  .... 

17.4° 

61* 

SOUTH  HOUSE 


Condition  Temp.  Rel.  Hum 


Condition  Temp.  Rel.  Hum 


Mar.  28,  1905 
Mar.  28,  1905 
Mar.  28,  1905 
Mar.  24,  1905 
Mar.  24,  1905 
Mar.  24,  1905 
May  4,  1905 
May  4,  1905 
May  4,  1905 
May  4,  1905 


11:20  a.m. 
1:45  p.m. 
5:00  p.m. 
10:00  a.m. 
12:00  m. 
2:30  p.m. 
9:55  a.m. 
10:00  a.m. 
11:00  a.m. 
12:C0  M 


May  4,  1905 


1:30  p.m. 


May  4,  1905 


2:  0  p.m. 


Open . 

Open  .  . . 
Pet.  fal’ng 

Open . 

Pet-,  fal’ng 
Pet  fal’ng 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

1  fir.  with 
fall’gpets. 
a  11  petals 
falling. . . 
All  petals 
falling. . . 


18.4° 
18° 
15.6° 
27.8° 
26° 
26  8° 
24  5° 


25° 

24.5° 


23.4° 


60* 

61* 

62.5* 

53* 

51* 

41* 

32* 


35* 

36* 


31.5* 


Open . • 

Open . 

Closed .... 

22° 

22° 

22° 

Open . 

12.5° 

Open . 

12.5° 

Open  .... 

14.5° 

Open . 

16° 

Closing. .. 

17° 

2  20 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


3i 


In  the  following  instance  opening  was  not  complete  at  any 
time  during  the  day: 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum. 

April  10,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 

Opening  a 

trifle  .... 

12.6° 

60$ 

April  10,  1905 

1:30  P.M. 

Opening  a 

trifle  .... 

12.8° 

68$ 

April  10,  1905 

4:30  p.m. 

Opening  a 

trifle  .... 

20.5° 

70$ 

This  late  closing  is  always  associated  with  a  late  opening  in 
the  morning  accompanied  by  a  low  temperature. 

Experiments  with  Oxalis  stricta.  The  flowers  of  Oxalis  stricta 
open  from  9:30  a.m.  to  11:00  a.mv  and  close  for  the  first  and 
only  time  between  1 :30  and  3  :oo  p.m.  The  same  phenomena 
are  to  be  observed  as  in  the  other  ephemeral  day  blooming  spe¬ 
cies  studied,  i.  e.,  a  low  temperature  hinders  opening  and  also 
prolongs  it  when  there  has  been  a  temperature  high  enough  to 
induce  opening.  Opening  can  be  made  to  occur  earlier  than  nor¬ 
mal  also,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  flowers  studied,  by  increasing 
the  amount  of  heat  to  a  few  degrees  above  the  normal.  As  evi¬ 
dences  of  the  effect  of  low  temperatures  on  the  time  of  opening, 
the  following  figures  are  conclusive.  Table  I  shows  the  normal 
condition  of  the  flowers  under  normal  temperatures ;  table  II, 
the  effect  of  a  lower  temperature  continuing  more  or  less  through¬ 
out  the  day: 


I. 


Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

March  21,  1905 . 

8:30  a.m. 

Not  open . 

22  4° 

5f$ 

March  21,  1905 . 

9:30  a.m 

M  open . 

24> 

54$ 

March  21,  1905 . 

11:30  a.m. 

Open . 

27  2° 

54$ 

5C$ 

March  21,  1905 . 

1:30  p.m. 

Only  2  flowers  still  open. 

28  4° 

221 


32 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


II. 


Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

March  28,  1905 . 

8:30  a.m. 

Not  open . 

17.5° 

71 % 

March  28,  1905 . 

9:30  a  m. 

Y%  to  wide  open  . 

19.1° 

59% 

March  28,  1905  . 

10:20  a.m. 

Yz  open . 

17.4° 

61% 

March  28,  1905 . 

11:20  a.m. 

Yi  open . 

18.4° 

60% 

March  28,  1905 . 

1:45  p.m. 

Open . 

18° 

61% 

March  28,  1905 . 

5:00  p.m. 

Closed . . 

15.6° 

62.5% 

The  effect  of  a  temperature  slightly  higher  than  normal  in 
inducing  a  more  rapid  opening  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp 

Rel.  Hum. 

April  26,  190'. 

9:30  a.m. 

Not  open. 

25  3° 

57.5% 

April  26,  1905 

10:15  a.m. 

Not  open. 

23° 

60% 

Not  open. 

22° 

Moist 

April  26,  1905 

10:40  a.m. 

y3  open.  .. 

16  2° 

63% 

%  open.  .. 

22° 

•  Moist 

April  26,  1905 

10:45  a.m. 

Va +  open. 

14.5° 

74% 

1  flr.  wide 

open . 

27.5° 

Moist 

April  26,  1905 

11:00  a.m. 

%  +  open. 

14.8° 

63% 

All  flow’rs 

wide  open 

27.5° 

Moist 

April  26,  1905 

11:15  a  m. 

Open . 

14.5° 

64% 

April  29,  1905 

8:35  a.m. 

Not  open. 

21.2° 

36% 

April  29,  1905 

9:00  a  m. 

Not  open. 

22° 

34% 

Not  open. 

21° 

Moist 

April  29,  1905 

9:25  a.m. 

1  flower  % 

open ...  . 

23.5° 

31% 

All  open . . 

24.5° 

Moist 

May  3,  19)5 

8:40  a  M. 

Not  open 

22° 

82% 

Not  open. 

22° 

Moist 

May  3,  1905 

9:20  a.m. 

y  open  .  . . 

22  6° 

78% 

Wide  open 

26.8° 

Moist 

May  3,  1905 

9:40  a.m. 

%  open  .  .. 

23.2° 

77% 

Wide  open 

26.8° 

Moist 

That  Oxalis  flowers  should  not  yet  be  open  at  8 135  A.M.,  April 
29,  1905,  and  at  8:40  a.m.,  May  3,  with  the  same  temperature  or 
practically  so,  21. 2°  and  22 °,  and  the  light  practically  the  same, 
shows  that  the  widely  different  relative  humidities  do  not  count 
for  much,  36  per  cent  the  first  instance,  and  82  per  cent  in  the 
other.  Opening  occurs  at  practically  the  same  time,  9:30  a.m., 
with  temperature  and  light  the  same,  but  the  relative  humidities 
still  widely  different,  31  per  cent  and  78  per  cent. 

Several  experiments,  a  half  dozen  at  least,  relative  to  the  effect 
of  light  in  opening  flowers,  show,  as  for  the  other  flowers  ex¬ 
perimented  upon,  that  opening  occurs  as  well  when  plants  were 
put  into  the  shade  tent  as  when  in  the  open  with  full  light. 


222 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


33 


EPHEMERAL  TYPES 

Night  bloomers 

Experiments  with  Pachylophus  caespitosus.  Field  conditions, 
rather  than  controlled  experiments,  were  made  use  of  here  to 
obtain  information  as  to  sleep  movements,  since  it  was  impossible 
to  grow  the  plants  in  the  greenhouse.  The  plant  as  observed 
grew  on  the  gravel  slides  of  the  mountains  around  Halfway, 
Colorado.  Its  delicate  fragrant  white  flowers  open  from  4:50 
p.m.  to  8:00  p.m.,  and  close  from  10:00  to  11  :oo  the  next  morn¬ 
ing,  when  they  become  a  dull  pink  color.  It  often  happens  that 
the  flower  stays  open  the  entire  day  when  it  is  cool  and  cloudy, 
and,  rarely,  on  to  the  next  day.  The  early  or  late  opening  in  the 
evening  is  not  due  so  much  to  the  immediate  temperatures  as  to 
those  that  have  prevailed  during  the  day,  thus  enabling  growth 
to  go  on  faster  and  opening  to  occur  sooner.  This  is  shown  by 
the  varied  temperatures  at  which  opening  and  closing  occur.  On 
certain  days,  the  flowers  are  still  open  in  the  morning  when  the 
temperature  rises  as  high  as  31  °,  while  in  other  cases  they  are 
closed  when  the  temperature  is  as  low  as  1 3.5 0  C.  or  as  high  as 
23.5 0  C.  Opening  in  the  evening  occurs  when  the  temperature 
is  as  high  as  19.5 0  C.  while,  when  it  remains  as  low  as  16.5 0  C., 
they  may  still  remain  unopened. 

Plants  copiously  watered  showed  no  earlier  opening  than  those 
normally  treated. 

Experiments  with  Mirabilis  jalap  a.  In  the  greenhouse,  in 
March  and  April,  these  flowers  stay  open  until  noon  or  after, 
sometimes  2  :oo  or  3  :oo  o’clock,  but  occasionally  are  closed  or 
almost  closed  by  10:30  a.m.  when  the  day  has  been  warm  and 
bright.  The  opening  almost  never  occurs  at  4:00  o’clock,  as 
tradition  goes,  but  at  6  :oo  or  9  :oo  o’clock  or  later.  It  is  possible 
to  prolong  the  period  of  opening  by  lowering  the  temperature 
below  the  normal.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  following  tables : 


3 


223 


34 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


SOUTH  HOUSE 

NORTH  HOUSE 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

April  15,  1903 

10:00  a  m 

Open . 

12.89 

55  / 

April  15,  1903 

10:i5  a.m. 

Open . 

13° 

m 

Open _ 

12  5° 

51/ 

April  15,  1903 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

17.4° 

41.5/0 

Open . 

12.5° 

61/ 

April  15,  1903 

11:05  a.m. 

Open . 

17° 

16/ 

Open . 

13° 

33/ 

April  15,  1903 

12:00  M. 

34  closed . . 

21° 

28/ 

Open . 

14.5° 

49/ 

April  15,  1903 

2:30  p.m. 

Closed .... 

25° 

26/ 

•34  closed . . 

13° 

35/ 

April  15,  1903 

3:00  P  m. 

Closed .... 

26° 

26/ 

34  closed . . 

13° 

62/ 

SOUTH  HOUSE 

EAST  house 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

1  emp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Jan.  24,  1905 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

13° 

43.5/ 

Open . 

7.8° 

Jan.  24,  1905 

12:00  m. 

Open . 

5° 

93.3/ 

Jan.  24,  19J5 

1:30  P  M. 

Open . 

6.5° 

88.4/ 

Jan.  24,  1905 

3:15  p.m. 

Open . 

1.6° 

Jan.  24,  1905 

5:00  p.m. 

Open . 

1.4° 

Jan.  25,  1905 

11:30  a.m. 

Open . 

21.4° 

42/ 

*Jan.  25,  1905 

2:20  p.m. 

Closed .... 

25.8° 

30/ 

Feb.  2,  1905 

10:30  a.m. 

Open . 

18° 

55/ 

Open . 

8° 

Feb.  2,  1905 

12:00  M 

Open . 

10° 

Feb.  2,  1905 

3:()0  P.M 

Open  . . 

8.6° 

Feb.  2,  1905 

5:30  p.m. 

34  closed . . 

7.5° 

*The  flower  which  was  open  on  the  morning  of  January  24,  1905,  was  still  open  the 
next  morning  at  11:30  a.m.,  but  closed  at  2:20  p.m. 


When  the  temperature  is  raised  above  the  normal,  closing 
can  be  brought  about  earlier  than  usual,  a  fact  shown  by  the 
following  table: 


SOOTH  HOUSE 

WARM  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

Condition 

Temp. 

Rel.  Hum. 

April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 
April  29,  1905 

10:00  a.m. 
10:20  a.m. 
10:30  a.m. 
11:05  a.m. 
12:00  M. 
2:30  p.m 
8:35  a.m 
9:00  a.m. 
9:25  a.m. 
10:30  a.m. 
12:00  m. 

Open . 

Open . 

Open  _ _ 

Open  . 

12.8° 

16° 

17.4° 

17.6° 

21.4° 

25° 

21.2° 

22° 

23.5° 

24.2° 

25° 

55/ 

51/ 

41.5/ 

16/ 

28/ 

27/ 

36/ 

35/ 

34/ 

34/ 

32/ 

Open . 

%  closed . . 

17° 

22.5° 

51/ 

34/ 

34  closed. . 
Closed .... 
Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Open . 

Closing . . . 

Open . 

Closing. . . 
Closed .... 

20° 

24.5° 

24.5° 

Moist 

Moist 

Moist 

Humidity  in  no  way  influences  closing  as  evidenced  by  the 
following : 


224 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


35 


MIDDLE  HOUSE 

MOIST  CHAMBER 

DRY  CHAMBER 

Date 

Hour 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum. 

Cond. 

Temp. 

Rel 

Hum. 

Cond 

Temp. 

Rel. 

Hum 

April  15,  1934 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
April  15,  1904 
Apiil  20,  1905 
April  20,  1905 
April  20,  19J5 

10:00  a.m. 
10:30  a.m. 
11:05  a.m. 
12:00  m. 
2:30  p.m. 
10:00  a  m. 
11:30  a.m. 
3:00  p.m 

Open  . 
Open  .. 
Open  .. 
Ya  clo’d 
Closed. 
Open  . . 
Open  . . 
Open  . . 

12.8° 

17.4° 

17° 

21.4° 

55$ 

41.5$ 

16$ 

28$ 

Open . . 
Open 

16.8° 

66$ 

Open 

Yd  clo’d 
closed . 
Open  . . 
Open  .. 
Open  . . 

15.4° 

16.8° 

16.2° 

57.5$ 

55.8$ 

51$ 

14.5° 

15° 

16.8° 

Open  . . 
Open  .. 
Open  . . 

14.5° 
14  5° 
15.4° 

Variations  in  the  amount  of  light  present  do  not  seem  to  affect 
closing,  for,  when  a  plant  with  open  flowers  is  put  into  the  tin 
box  with  increased  temperature,  and  practically  no  light,  except 
the  small  amount  from  the  non-luminous  alcohol  flame,  closing 
occurs  as  readily  as  in  the  open,  if  not  more  so.  Opening  and 
closing  also  occur  as  in  the  open  when  the  plants  are  put  in  the 
black  shade  tents.  Closing  may  take  place  at  as  low"  a  degree 
of  temperature  as  7.50  C.,  when  the  flower  has  been  kept  open 
beyond  its  usual  time  by  several  hours,  as  in  the  case  cited  on 
page  34,  for  February  2,  1905.  This  is  to  be  explained  on  the 
basis  that,  since  the  flower’s  existence  is  normally  only  one  day 
or  a  part  of  it,  the  flower  has  remained  open  its  usual  time  ac¬ 
cording  to  its  hereditary  habits,  its  activities  were  completed,  and 
hence  closing  occurred.  Whenever  closing  occurs  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  between  11:00  and  12:00,  the  temperature  is  nearly  always 
190  to  26°  C.,  while,  when  it  is  delayed  until  2:00  to  4:00  p.m., 
it  is  as  low7  as  130  or  170  C.  with  high  humidities,  showing  that 
it  is  not  the  extremely  low  temperature,  but  the  constantly  low 
temperature,  continued  for  a  considerable  time,  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  late  opening. 


SUMMARY 

I  have  been  able  to  control  the  opening  and  closing  of  dande¬ 
lion  flowers  in  so  far  that  I  can  close  them  permanently  with 
lower  temperature  than  normal,  and  open  them  when  tempera¬ 
ture  has  continued  too  low,  by  the  application  of  either  dry  or 
moist  heat.  It  is  also  possible  to  close  any  ephemeral  flower  be- 


225 


36 


Esther  Pearl  Hens  el 


fore  its  time  by  an  extra  amount  of  heat,  with  either  dry  or  moist 
air.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  open  an  ephemeral  flower  by 
placing  the  plant  in  a  lower  temperature,  since  this  checks  growth, 
and  opening  is  here  rather  a  growth  movement  than  a  stimu¬ 
latory  one  as  in  the  other  types. 

In  the  careful  study  by  experiment  of  Taraxacum  taraxacum , 
Mentzelia  nuda,  Ipomoea  purpurea,  Linum  usitatissimum,  Oxalis 
stricta,  Mirabilis  jalapa,  and  Pachylophus  caespitosus,  light,  hu¬ 
midity  of  the  air,  and  water-content  of  the  soil  have  been  success¬ 
fully  eliminated  as  possible  physical  factors  likely  to  cause  the 
opening  and  closing  of  flowers  by  the  movement  of  the  petals 
(or  florets).  Heat,  on  the  other  hand,  by  its  variations  during 
twenty-four  hours,  is  the  direct  cause  of  movement  in  hemer- 
anthous  and  nyctanthous  types  that  bloom  for  more  than  one  day. 
In  the  case  of  those  ephemeral  flowers  which  open  very  early  in 
the  morning  before  the  temperature  has  risen  to  any  extent,  as 
the  morning  glory,  in  contrast  to  those  like  purslane  which  open 
as  the  temperature  rises,  or  those  like  the  evening  primrose  which 
open  a  short  time  after  the  higher  temperatures  of  the  day  have 
given  place  to  the  lower  ones  of  night,  the  phenomenon  is  not  to 
be  explained  so  easily;  it  is  possible  that  they  react  to  a  smaller 
variation  in  temperature  than  do  the  others  mentioned. 

The  closing  of  ephemeral  flowers  is,  however,  a  different  proc¬ 
ess  from  that  of  periodic 'flowers,  since  it  signifies  the  end  of  the 
existence  of  the  flower.  This  closing,  as  has  been  shown,  can  be 
delayed  for  several  hours  by  a  temperature  constantly  lower  than 
normal,  showing  that  the  two  are  closely  connected.  It  would 
seem  to  be  a  tenable  theory  that  ephemeral  types  of  flowers  have 
arisen  by  an  extra  need  for  protection  of  the  flower  against  ex¬ 
cessive  heat  and  evaporation,  e.  g\,  in  a  dry  or  warm  climate,  for 
it  is  true  in  nearly  every  instance  that  the  ephemeral  type  of 
flower  either  blooms  at  night  or  for  only  a  few  hours  during  the 
day.  The  differentiation  into  these  types  in  the  past  generations 
must  have  come  about  in  some  such  way,  and  they  have  persisted 
because  of  this  favorable  adaptation. 

The  cause  of  the  periodic  movements  of  hemeranthous  and 
nyctanthous  types  is,  however,  explainable  through  the  influence 


226 


On  the  Movements  of  Petals 


37 


of  variations  in  temperature,  acting,  not  through  turgescence, 
but  by  stimulation  of  the  protoplasm. 

To  Professor  Doctor  C.  E.  Bessey  and  Professor  Doctor  F.  E. 
Clements,  under  whose  guidance  the  work  embodied  in  this  thesis 
has  been  carried  on,  I  owe  my  most  sincere  thanks  for  encour¬ 
agement  and  for  suggestions  and  advice  concerning  instruments 
and  methods  of  experimentation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Balfour,  John.  Manual  of  Botany.  263.  1875. 

Burgerstein,  A.  Ueber  die  nyctitropischen  Bewegungen  der 
Perianthien.  Osterreich.  Bot.  Zeits.  6.  1901. 

Darwin,  Charles.  The  Power  of  Movement  in  Plants.  1885. 

Detmar,  W.  Das  Kleine  Pflanzenphysiologische  Praktikum. 
254.  1903. 

Dutrochet,  M.  Reveil  et  Sommeil  des  Plantes.  Ann.  Sci.  Nat. 
Bot.,  2:6:177.  1836. 

Farmer,  J.  Bretland.  On  the  Mechanism  which  is  Concerned 
in  Effecting  the  Opening  and  Closing  of  Tulip  Flowers.  The 
New  Phytologist,  March  19,  1902.  56. 

Green,  J.  Reynolds.  An  Introduction  to  Vegetable  Physiology . 
chap.  25.  1900. 

Hansgirg,  Anton.  Verbreitung  der  karpotropischen  Nuta- 
tions-kriimmungungen.  Berichte  Deut.  Bot.  Ges.  8:345.  1890. 

Ibid.  New  Biological  Researches.  Bot.  Cent.  51.  1892. 

Ibid.  Neue  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Gamo-  und  Karpotrop- 
ismus  sowie  iiber  die  Reiz-  und  Schlafbewegungen  der  Bliithen 
und  Laubbldtter.  Sitzungsb.  der  Konig.  bohmischen  Ges.  der 
Wissenschaften.  1896. 

Ibid.  Neue  Beitrdge  sur  Pdanzenbiologie  nebst  N achtrdgen 
zu  meinen  <(Phytodyndmischen  N atursuchungen.”  Abdruck  aus 
Beih.  zum  Bot.  Cent.  1902. 

Hoffman,  Herman.  Le  Sommeil  des  Plantes.  Ann.  Sci.  Nat. 
Bot.,  3:14:310.  1850. 

Hofmeister,  W.  Flora.  45:516.  1862. 


227 


38 


Esther  Pearl  Hensel 


Jost,  Ludwig.  Bcitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  nyctitropischen 
Bewegungen.  Jahr.  Wis.  Bot.  31 1345.  1898. 

Ibid.  V drlcsungen  ilber  Pflanzenphysiologie.  1904. 

Kerner,  Anton,  and  Oliver,  F.  W.  The  Natural  History  of 
Plants.  1:500,  1895;  2:210,  1895. 

Linne,  C.  von.  Philosophia  Botanica.  272.  1751. 

Oltmanns,  Friedrich.  Ueber  das  Oeffnen  und  Schliessen  der 
Bluthen.  Bot.  Ztg.  2:53.  1895. 

Pfeffer,  W.  Physiology  of  Plants.  2.  1904. 

Prantl-Pax.  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik.  158.  1904. 

Ray,  J.  Historia  Plantar um.  1 :2.  1686. 

Royer,  Ch.  Essai  sur  le  Sommeil  des  Plantes.  Ann.  Sci.  Nat. 
Bot.,  5:9:345*  1868. 

Sachs,  J.  Text-book  of  Botany.  872.  1882. 
Strasburger-Schimper.  Text-book  of  Botany.  246.  1896. 

Vochting,  Hermann.  Ueber  den  EinUuss  der  Warme  auf  die 
Bliithenbewegungen  der  Anemone  stellata.  Jahr.  Wis.  Bot. 
21 :285.  1890. 

Wiederscheim,  Walther.  Studicn  iiber  photonastische  und 
.  thermonastische  Bewegungen.  Jahr.  Wis.  Bot.  40:2:230.  1904. 


\ 


228 


II. — On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  ( November , 
1789-July  17,  1791) 

BY  CHARLES  KUHLMANN 

The  Breton  Club  having  ceased  its  activity  after  the  discussion 
of  the  veto  in  August,  .1789,  the  popular  party  in  the  assembly 
found  itself  without  a  rallying  point.  Although  differences  of 
opinion  had  shattered  the  loosely  organized  club  at  Versailles, 
the  memory  of  its  usefulness  soon  induced  the  same  members  to 
attempt  the  formation  of  a  new  and  more  regularly  organized 
association  in  the  capital.1  The  exact  date  of  the  formation  of 
the  Jacobin  Club  it  is  impossible  to  determine  from  the  evidence 
so  far  discovered,  but  everything  points  to  the  close  of  November 
or  the  first  days  of  December,  1789,  as  the  period  during  which 
the  first  meetings  were  held.  From  a  letter  of  Boulle,  deputy  of 
Pontivy,  dated  December  18,2  we  learn  that  the  society  had  re¬ 
cently  been  formed  but  had  existed  long  enough  to  have  received 
numerous  requests  for  correspondence  from  provincial  societies.3 


1  For  the  fate  of  the  Breton  Club,  see  my  article  in  the  University  Studies 
for  October,  1902,  pp.  77-87.  For  the  condition  of  the  popular  party  at  the 
time  when  the  Jacobin  Club  was  formed,  see  the  letter  of  Boulle  cited  be¬ 
low.  This  letter  also  practically  disposes  of  the  controversy  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  new  club.  Some  of  the  members  lat  denied  that  the  Breton  depu¬ 
ties  were  the  founders,  and  while  Boulle’s  letter  does  not  prove  that  his  col¬ 
leagues  from  Bretagne  were  alone  concerned,  it  shows  that  the  Jacobin  Club 
was  looked  upon  at  the  time  of  its  formation  as  a  continuation  of  the  Breton 
Club.  For  the  controversy  see  Aulard,  La  societe  des  Jacobins ,  1,-xvii-xxi, 
cited  as  “Aulard”  in  the  following  pages. 

2  Kerviler,  Recherches  et  notices ,  art.  Boulle.  The  letters  of  Boulle  are 
now  in  the  archives  of  Morbihan. 

“That  the  club  had  not  yet  been  formed  on  November  18,  we  may  con¬ 
clude  as  practically  certain,  for  in  the  Observateur  of  that  date  a  certain 
Imbert,  who  had  been  asked  by  the  editor,  Feydel,  to  urge  the  formation  of 
a  Society  of  the  Revolution ,  expresses  surprise  that  no  one  had  as  yet 
thought  of  such  a  thing.  Imbert  sent  three  louis  to  Desenne  as  a  subscrip¬ 
tion  for  the  formation  of  such  a  society  and  invited  others  to  do  the  same. 
As  Imbert  seemed  well  informed  and  as  Desenne’s  was  a  place  where  the 


University  Studies,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  July  1905. 


229 


2 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


This  new  organization  adopted  the  name  of  “Society  of  the 
Revolution”  which  it  soon  changed  to  “The  Society  of  the 
Friends  of  the  Constitution.”1  The  name  “Jacobin”  was  unoffi¬ 
cial  before  September  21,  1792,  and  was  given  it  by  the  public 
who  knew  it  as  the  society  which  met  in  the  Jacobin  convent.2 
A  formal  constitution  or  reglement  was  voted  on  February  8, 
1790,  entrance  cards  and  initiation  fees  required,  and  persons  not 
members  of  the  National  Assembly  freely  admitted.3  Prepara¬ 
tion  for  the  debates  in  the  National  Assembly,  which  had  been 
practically  the  sole  object  of  the  Breton  Club,  was  only  one  of 
the  objects  of  the  new  society.  Its  aim  was  nothing  less  than  the 
conversion  of  the  whole  of  France  to  the  support  of  the  revolu¬ 
tion.  It  was  the  center  of  an  enormous  propaganda,  with  sec¬ 
ondary  centers  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  kingdom,  and  soon 
spreading  into  the  villages  and  even  the  country  districts.4 
Three  large  standing  committees  were  appointed,  meeting  on 
fixed  dates  as  deliberating  bodies.  These  were  the  committees 
on  membership,  correspondence,  and  administration.5 

The  Jacobin  Club  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  party  in  the  usual 
sense  of  the  term,  for  it  was  not  composed  of  men  holding  the 
same  views  upon  the  questions  of  the  hour.  Its  members  were 
not  required  to  subscribe  to  any  specific  political  faith.  They 
promised  merely  to  uphold  the  revolution  as  it  had  been  or  was 

deputies  frequently  gathered  for  consultation,  it  is  not  likely  that  this  move¬ 
ment  would'have  been  undertaken  had  th z  Society  of  the  Revolution  already 
existed.  On  the  other  hand,  for  the  Jacobin  Club  to  have  become  known 
in  the  provinces  and  have  received  requests  for  correspondence  from  there 
by  the  18th  of  December  argues  that  it  had  already  existed  for  several 
weeks.  Barnave,  author  of  the  Jacobin  constitution,  in  a  letter  of  June  25, 
1790,  gives  the  close  of  November  as  the  time  when  the  society  was  founded. 

JThis  name  is  given  in  the  constitution  of  February  8,  1790,  Aulard,  I, 
xxviii-xxxiii. 

£  Aulard,  I,  xxii. 

3  See  constitution  of  the  club,  and  Aulard,  I,  note  1,  p.  xxx. 

4  See  preamble  to  the  constitution  and  Aulard,  I,  lxxxii-lxxxix,  where  a 
list  of  the  affiliated  societies  down  to  June  19,  1791,  is  given,  a  list  which  is 
probably  very  incomplete. 

5  For  the  membership  of  these  committees  on  May  1,  1791,  see  Aulard.  I, 
lxxvii-lxxix.  How  extensive  the  work  of  administration  became  in  1791, 
and  the  formal  manner  in  which  these  committees  proceeded  may  be 
learned  from  the  Procts-verbaux  des  stances  du  comitt  d' administration  de  la 
societt  des  amis  de  la  constitution ,  etc.,  Archives  Nationales,  F.7,443o  M.SS. 


230 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  3 

still  to  be  expressed  in  the  work  of  the  National  Assembly.1 
This  by  no  means  implied  that  all  its  members  were  necessarily 
satisfied  with  the  solution  of  every  question  so  far  treated  by  the 
assembly,  but  that  as  a  matter  of  policy  they  acquiesced.  Dif¬ 
ference  of  opinion  was  often  as  violently  expressed  in  the  club 
as  in  the  assembly.  It  is  equally  misleading!  to  use  the  terms 
“Jacobin”  and  “revolutionary”  as  svnonyrpou?,  a^;  Ferfieres  so 
frequently  does,2  for  the  society  never  yontairjej  all  the  deputies 
in  sympathy  with  the  revolution  and  it  certainly  was  not  respon¬ 
sible  for  the  whole  revolution.  It  was  by  such  loose  terminology 
that  the  enemies  of  the  club  attempted  to  render  it  responsible 
for  every  radical  measure  or  popular  disturbance.3 

At  the  close  of  November,  1789,  when  the  society  was  organ¬ 
ized,  the  grouping  into  parties,  in  the  assembly  had  hardly  passed 
beyond  a  loose  division  into  left  and  right.  As  the  work  pro¬ 
ceeded.  the  men  of  various  temperaments  were  attracted  about 
their  respective  centers  of  affinity,  a  process  which  very  soon 
made  itself  apparent  among  the  Jacobins.  That  discontent  ex¬ 
isted  in  the  right  wing  of  the  club  as  early  as  January,  1790,  is 
to  be  inferred  from  the  negotiations  of  Malouet  with  Liancourt- 
Larochfoucauld,  Lafayette,  and  others  for  the  formation  of  a 
more  moderate  society,  the  “Impartials.”4  Malouet  did  not  suc¬ 
ceed,  but  some  of  the  men  he  sought  to  detach  from  the  Jacobins 
soon  discovered  their  tendency  in  entering  the  “Club  of  '89.” 
Throughout  the  whole  duration  of  the  assembly  there  was  a  con¬ 
stant  loss  of  members  from  the  right  of  the  club  and  a  corre¬ 
sponding  gain  on  the  left,  a  tendency  which  largely  explains  its 
passage  from  a  moderate  to  a  radical  organization. 

This  process  was,  from  its  positive  side,  largely  the  result  of 
necessity.  Calumniated  by  its  enemies,  the  society  was  forced  to 
take  the  public. to  some  extent  into  its  confidence.  As  it  was  the 


1  See  the  constitution  of  the  club,  Aulard,  I,  xxviii-xxxiii. 

2  Memoires,  passim. 

3This  was  the  usual  practice  of  the  pamphleteers.  See  pamphlets  pub¬ 
lished  by  Aulard  in  volumes  one  and  two. 

4  For  these  negotiations  see  Revolutions  de  France  et  de  Brabant ,  No.  8, 
1^90.  Journal  des  impartiaux ,  No.  1,  and  Memoires  of  Malouet,  I,  374-81. 


231 


4 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


intention  of  the  deputies  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  discussions 
in  the  National  Assembly  they  could  not  well  admit  friends  and 
enemies  alike,  even  as  mere  spectators.  So,  to  allay  the  suspi¬ 
cions  of  the  people  of  Paris,  they  received  into  membership  an 
ever-increasing  number  of  citizens  who  by  their  character  and 
reputation  would  discredit  all  evil  reports.1  But  this  policy,  very 
fatal  to  the  society  in  the  end,  contributed  in  March,  1790,  to 
bring  about  the  revplt  of  some  one  hundred  and  twenty  deputies 
who  were  offended  at  the  influence  non-deputies  were  thus  en¬ 
abled  to  exercise  upon  the  decisions  of  the  National  Assembly. 
These  secessionists  established  themselves  in  a  rival  club  at  the 
house  of  the  Comte  de  Crillon,  holding  its  meetings  upon  the 
same  days  and  hours  as  those  of  the  Jacobins,  and  admitting  all 
members  of  the  latter  society  who  were  at  the  same  time  deputies 
to  the  National  Assembly.  This  greatly  alarmed  the  Jacobins, 
who  began  at  once  to  make  overtures  of  peace.  On  March  15, 
1790,  Charles  Lameth,  then  president  of  the  society,  followed  by 
a  large  number  of  members,  appeared  at  the  Crillon  assembly 
and  besought  its  members  earnestly  to  return  in  the  interest  of 
unity  among  the  patriots.  They  promised  that  thereafter  two  or 
three  sessions  a  week  should  be  held  from  which  non-deputies 
would  be  excluded.  What  agreement  was  finally  reached — cer¬ 
tainly  riot  the  one  here  proposed — we  do  not  know,  but  the  efforts 
of  the  Jacobins  were  successful  in  bringing  the  schism  to  an  end.2 

But  the  presence  of  non-deputies  was  not  the  only  cause  that 
had  driven. some  of  the  members  of  the  National  Assembly  from 
the  society.  The  Lameths  and  their  friends  had  already  begun 
to  exercise  more  influence  than  some  were  able  to  endure.  So 
severe  was  the  personal  strife,  that  Charles  Lameth  declared  the 
Comte  de  Crillon  and  Larochfoucauld  to  be  “vile  courtisans.”3 
It  was  supposed,  too,  by  some  that  the  society  was  directed  by  a 
secret  committee  composed  of  Barnave,  the  Lameths,  D’Aiguil- 
lon,  Duport,  Labord,  and  Baron  Menou,  who  assembled  at  a 
place  in  the  Rue  Saint-Nicaise  or  Basse-du-Rempart.  This  con- 

1  Dubois-Cranc6,  Analyse  de  la  revolution  frangaise,  p.  51,  cited  by 
Aiilard,  I,  xix. 

1  Duquesnoy,y<?«r#a/,  I,  bulletin  of  March  16,  1790. 

a  Ibid. 


232 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  5 

jecture,  entered  by  Duqnesnoy  under  date  of  March  16,  1790,  is 
frequently  repeated  by  the  enemies  of  the  Jacobins  as  a  fact,  but 
our  trustworthy  sources  give  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a 
formally  organized  committee  of  this  nature.1 

Hardly  had  the  Crillon  difficulty  been  disposed  of  before  the 
long  debate  in  the  National  Assembly  upon  the  judicial  system 
began,  creating  a  new  division  in  the  popular  party.  Adrien 
Duport,  rejecting  the  report  of  the  committee  on  the  constitu¬ 
tion,  toward  the  close  of  March,  read  a  plan  of  his  own  which 
the  society  officially  approved  by  printing  it.  On  March  30,  it 
was  attacked  in  the  society  itself,  after  Loyseau  had  on  the  24th 
read  a  long  and  favorable  commentary  on  it.2  The  point  of 
greatest  difficulty  was  whether  or  not  juries  should  be  introduced 
in  civil  cases  as  Duport  had  proposed.  Barnave,  the  Lameths, 
and  Robespierre  warmly  seconded  Duport  against  the  advocates 
and  procurers  who  almost  to  a  unit  opposed  it.  In  spite  of  the 
violence  of  Charles  Lameth,  who  declared  that  he. would  oppose 
the  aristocracy  of  the  advocates  as  he  had  opposed  the  other  aris¬ 
tocrats,  and  the  talk  of  despotism  and  counter-revolution,  the 
party  of  Duport  was  defeated.3  But  the  debate  had  beyond 
question  driven  a  number  of  deputies  from  the  club. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  “Triumvirate,”  composed  of  Bar- 
nave,  Alexander  Lameth,  and  Adrien  Duport,  established  their 
supremacy  in  the  society.  The  formation  of  the  “Club  of  ’89” 
about  this  time  contributed  to  this  result  by  removing  a  large 
number  of  deputies  who  would  have  opposed  them  had  they  re¬ 
mained.  Their  power  in  the  club  and  in  the  assembly  was  at¬ 
tested  by  the  fury  with  which  their  enemies  attacked  them. 
From  May  or  June,  1790,  to  March,  1791,  innumerable  pam¬ 
phlets  and  articles  in  the  newspapers  were  directed  against  them 

1Duquesnoy y  Journal,  I,  bulletin  for  March  16,  1790. 

2  Aulard,  I,  42-58,  speech  of  Loyseau. 

3  The  discussion  on  the  jury  system  is  somewhat  fully  reported  in  the 
Correspondance  de  MM.  les  deputes  des  communes  de  la  province  d' Anjou 
IV,  Nos.  22  and  23.  Ferrieres  says  that  the  avocats  were  a  disturbing  ele¬ 
ment  among  the  “  revolutionists”  at  this  time.  Robespierre  claims  that  the 
avocats  acted  as  a  unit  against  the  jury  in  criminal  cases.  Memoires  au- 
thentiques  de  M.  de  Robespierre ,  Paris,  1830,  II,  66.  See  also  Chronique  de 
Paris ,  No.  98,  1790. 


233 


6 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


with  no  apparent  effect  other  than  to  increase  their  popularity.1 
Duport,  former  member  of  the  Chambre  des  Enquetes  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris,  came  to  the  National  Assembly  with  his 
reputation  as  an  opponent  of  the  government  already  made.2 
Possessed  of  considerable  organizing  talent,  he  supplemented  the 
work  of  the  intriguer  Lameth  and  the  oratorical  powers  of  the 
proud  but  incisive  advocate  of  Grenoble,  Barnave,  who,  although 
very  soon  remarked,  made  his  reputation  upon  the  committee  on 
colonies  and  in  his  famous  debate  with  Mirabeau. 

As  another  group  in  the  society,  the  friends  of  the  Due  d’  Or¬ 
leans  are  sometimes  cited.  Not  infrequently  the  enemies  of  the 
club  charged  it  with  being  in  the  pay  of  this  notorious  character 
or  with  working  in  his  interests.3  As  the  duke  was  a  popular 
character,  it  is  certain  that  many  members  of  the  club  were  fa¬ 
vorably  disposed  toward  him,  but  nothing  worthy  the  name  of 
evidence  has  been  found  showing  that  the  club,  during  this  early 
period  of  its  existence,  ever  contemplated  putting  him  forward  as 
against  the  ruling  branch  of  the  family.  His  son  was  a  popular 
member  of  the  society,4  and  Desmoulins  early  in  1790,  speaking 
of  the  imminent  return  of  the  Due  d’  Orleans  from  England,  ad¬ 
dressed  him  in  one  of  the  numbers  of  his  “Revolutions  de  France 
et  de  Brabant,”  in  his  half-bantering  tone,  urging  him  to  go  to 
the  Jacobins  where  he  would  be  gladly  received.5  Laclos,  the 
editor  of  the  Jacobin  journal  of  correspondence,  was  held  to  be 
an  agent  of  the  duke  secretly  working  for  his  interests  at  the 

J  Chronique  de  Paris ,  No.  174.  Pamphlets  published  by  Aulard,  in  vol¬ 
umes  one  and  two. 

2  He  was  one  of  the  principal  opponents  of  the  government  during  the 
parliamentary  revolution  of  1787-1789,  and  gave  his  name  to  a  revolutionary 
club  of  this  period,  the  Comitk  Duport. 

3  Pamphlet,  Le  car naval Jacobite ,  Aulard,  II,  154-65;  Les  chefs  des  Jacob¬ 
ites ,  1, 1-9. 

4  Aulard,  I,  325. 

'  No.  8.  “  Dans  un  moment  ovl  Malouet  et  les  ministres  veulent  mener 
le  roi  aux  Augustins,  e’est  pour  nous  une  affaire  capitale  d’entrainer  son 
frere  aux  Jacobins.  En  consequence,  le  procureur  general  de  la  lanterne 
ne  se  souvient  plus  que  de  ces  paroles  du  prophete:  Quand  vous  seriez rouge 
comme  Vecarlate,  t  us  vos  feches  seront  lazes,  et  vous  serez  blanc  comme  neisse 
si  vous  venez  aux  Jacobins.  Mais  il  faut  renvoyer  madame  Balbi  d’ou  elle 
est  venue.  Alors  noster  eris ,  et  nous  vous  ferons  president  des  Jacobins 
honneur  qui  vaut  bien  celui  d’etre  frere  du  roi.” 


234 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  7 

club.1  On  the  other  hand,  Mirabeau,  who  was  probably  in  posi¬ 
tion  to  know,  declared  in  his  seventh  note  to  the  king  that  the 
Due  d’  Orleans  had  never  been  anything  to  the  Jacobins.2 

Although  the  society  was,  almost  from  the  moment  of  its  birth, 
accused  of  violence  and  agitation  for  selfish  motives,3  it  was  not 
until  November,  1790,  that  such  charges  could  be  made  with  en¬ 
tire  justice.  Until  that  time  the  reports  of  the  meetings  of  the 
society  indicate  that  the  discussions  were  orderly  in  outward 
form  and  sane  in  content.  Formal  papers,  dissertations  by  schol¬ 
ars  or  educated  men,  predominated  during  the  first  period  of  its 
existence.  Questions  confronting  the  National  Assembly  were 
discussed  in  an  exhaustive  way,  by  considering  them  in  their  fun¬ 
damental  elements.  This  mode  of  debate,  which,  it  must  be  un¬ 
derstood,  was  never  the  exclusive  practice,  gave  place  gradually 
to  more  impromptu  efforts  by  less  intelligent  disputants.4  The 
society  naturally  became  more  irresponsible  as  the  more  moderate 
deputies  and  scholars  withdrew,  a  process  which  has  been  de¬ 
scribed  above. 

Alexander  Lameth,  no  doubt  with  a  desire  of  shielding  him¬ 
self  and  his  friends,  ascribes  the  violence  of  the  Jacobins  to  the 
policy  of  “pessimism”  adopted  by  the  court  in  filling  the  society 
with  hotheads  for  the  purpose  of  discrediting  it.5 6  How  much 
truth  there  is  in  this,  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  but  it  seems  that 
the  plan  was  at  least  seriously  considered.  It  is  only  a  part  of 
Mirabeau ’s  greater  scheme  for  destroying  the  National  Assem¬ 
bly  by  driving  it  to  extremes.0  It  is  certain  that  the  Jacobins  at 
the  beginning  of  1791  believed  that  traitors  had  been  introduced 
among  them  so  that  for  a  long  time  they  considered  the  advisa- 

1  Michelet  claims  that  Laclos  as  editor  of  the  Journal  des  amis  de  la  con¬ 
stitution  used  this  newspaper  in  the  interest  of  the  duke.  I  confess  I  can 
not  see  the  slightest  evidence  of  this,  especially  since  Laclos  did  little  be¬ 
yond  publishing  extracts  from  the  correspondence  of  the  affiliated  societies. 

2  Bacourt,  Correspondance  entre  le  Comte  de  Mirabeau  et  le  Comte  de  la 
Marck ,  II,  70.  Cited  in  the  following  pages  as  “  Bacourt.” 

3  Aulard,  I,  1-9. 

4  This  tendency  is  very  noticeable  in  the  sources  published  by  Aulard, 
volumes  one  and  two. 

5  Histoire  de  V assemblee  constituante ,  I,  424-25. 

6  Bacourt,  II,  note  43. 


235 


8 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


bility  of  taking  a  vote  of  purification  ( scrutin  epuratoire)1  and 
that  Desmoulins  defended  the  moderation  of  Barnave  in  the  ad¬ 
dress  he  had  drawn  up  for  the  affiliated  societies  in  March,  1791, 
on  the  grounds  that  its  enemies  were  trying  to  destroy  the  society 
by  means  of  its  own  excesses.2 

But  aside  from  these  causes  at  work  in  destroying  the  modera¬ 
tion  of  the  Jacobins,  there  were  others  more  positive  in  their 
character  and  better  established  by  evidence  than  is  the  assertion 
of  Lameth.  In  the  first  place,  toward  the  close  of  1790  the  at¬ 
mosphere  became  overcharged  with  rumors  of  counter  revolution 
which  poured  into  the  club  from  the  affiliated  societies  and  were 
spread  in  endless  profusion  by  the  papers  of  Desmoulins,  Freron, 
Carra,  Prud’homme,  and  others.  What  more  natural  than  that 
the  Jacobins  also  should  take  fire?  In  the  second  place,  Barnave 
has  made  an  extremely  important  and  instructive  confession,  one 
fatal  to  Lameth'' s  statement,  so  far  as  its  defensive  character  is 
concerned.  He  and  his  friends  having  for  some  time  been  occu¬ 
pied  with  committee  work,  Barnave  found,  upon  his  return  to 
the  general  discussions,  that  the  confidence  the  National  Assem¬ 
bly  had  had  in  him  and  his  popularity  at  large  had  been  greatly 
weakened.  To  regain  his  lost  ground  he  began  his  career  of  de¬ 
nunciation,  so  evident  in  December,  1790,  and  January,  1791, 
and  which  drew*  upon  him  and  his  friends  the  most  venomous 
attacks  of  the  pamphleteers  and  the  opposing  press.3 

Until  about  April,  1791,  Barnave  and  his  friends  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  ascendency  (over  the  Jacobins,  carrying  the 
mass  of  the  members  with  them  in  their  fury  of  denunciation. 
Whether  any  members  actually  abandoned  the  society  because 
of  these  excesses,  as  was  claimed  at  the  time,  is  difficult  to  deter¬ 
mine,  but  it  can  not  be  doubted  that  many  of  its  friends  were 
disappointed  and  that  it  was  ultimately  injurious  to  the  reputa¬ 
tion  of  the  society.  Before  the  leaders  became  convinced  of  the 
pernicious  influence  they  exercised,  their  enemies  fell  upon  them 
with  a  fury  even  greater  than  their  own.  While  some  attacked 

1 Journal  des  amis  de  la  constitution ,  III,  No.  35,  note  p.  3S0. 

2 Revolutions  de  France  et  de  Brabant ,  VI,  No.  68,  166. 

8  See  pamphlets  published  by  Aulard  in  volume  two. 


236 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  g 

the  society  as  a  whole,  others  absolved  the  majority  of  its  mem¬ 
bers,  while  fixing  the  blame  upon  the  “Triumvirate; ,n  These 
latter,  like  Mirabeau  and  Montmorin,  set  themselves  the  task  of 
destroying  the  power  of  the  leaders  in  the  club,  after  which  the 
other  members  might  perhaps  be  directed  to  better  objects.2  As 
long  as  this  attempt  was  evident  as  the  work  of  the  reactionary 
party,  it  could  not  fail  to  have  an  effect  exactly  the  contrary  to 
the  one  intended,  for  to  be  the  object  of  attack  from  this  quarter 
was  to  be  designated  as  a  good  patriot.  Much  more  dangerous 
were  the  maneuvers  led  by  Mirabeau,  aided  by  Montmorin  and 
La  Marck.  Duport  and  Alexander  Lameth,  in  their  violent  at¬ 
tack  upon  Mirabeau  on  February  28,  1791,  had  intended  to  drive 
him  from  the  club,  but  failed  completely.  A  burst  of  applause 
greeted  Mirabeau’s  reply  to  his  opponents,  and  his  correspond¬ 
ence  shows  that  he  did  not  consider  himself  defeated.3  He  knew 
that  the  position  of  the  Lameths  and  their  friends  was  not  at  all 
secure  and  that  their  very  violence  evidenced  their  embarrass¬ 
ment.4  But  on  March  2,  an  extremely  clumsy  act  of  Duquesnoy 
spoiled  everything.  Like  Mirabeau  and  many  others,  Duquesnoy 
had  been  denounced  by  Lameth  on  the  28th  of  February  and 
now  had  the  evil  inspiration  of  replying  in  a  letter  to  the  Jacobins, 
which  seemed  to  them  to  divulge  the  plan  they  had  so  long  sus¬ 
pected,  namely,  that  an  attempt  was  being  made  to  divide  the 
society.  Duquesnoy  openly  praised  the  majority  of  the  members 
but  severely  took  to  task  the  Lameths  and  their  friends.  “I  will 
tell  you,  then,”  he  wrote,  “with  the  frankness  appropriate  for  all, 
that  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  liberty  are  those  ,  who,  like 
M.  Lameth,  concealing  a  profound  ambition  under  the  mask  of 
patriotism,  regard  the  people  only  as  a  ladder  upon  which  to 
mount  to  power.  .  .  .  The  insupportable  despotism  of  the 

MM.  Lameths  and  of  several  of  their  friends  has  driven  from 

iSee  pamphlets  published  by  Aulard  in  volume  two. 

2Bacourt,  II,  384,  note  45,  December  4,  1790,  and  III,  Mirabeau  to  La 
Marck,  March  4, 1791,  78. 

3 See  the  debate  on  the  28th  of  February,  1791,  in  Aulard,  II,  95-113. 

4Bacourt,  III,  note  49,  January  17,  1791.  La  Marck  thought  the  Jacobin 
leaders  on  the  verge  of  overthrow  even  in  December,  1790.  Letter  to 
Mercy-Argenteau,  December  30,  1790,  Bacourt,  II,  530. 


237 


io 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


your  society  some  very  ardent  friends  of  liberty;  the  more  one 
loves  it  [liberty],  gentlemen,  the  more  one  hates  every  kind  of 
domination;  I  call  your  own  proud  souls  to  witness.  .  .  . 

Public  opinion  seems  to-day  to  judge  the  men  of  whom  I  speak; 
when  it  shall  be  more  strongly  expressed,  when  those  who  dis¬ 
honor  your  society  shall  be  more  universally  judged,  you  will  see 
all  the  friends  of  liberty  reunite  themselves  to  you,  and  the  party 
spirit  which  now  divides  us  and  causes  the  misfortune  of  France 
will  cede  to  the  irresistible  force  of  public  spirit.  ...  I  have 
not  in  my  whole  life  advanced  a  single  principle,  a  single  fact, 
which  I  ought  to  disavow.  I  place  before  you  the  most  formal 
defiance  for  M.  Lameth  to  cite  a  single  one.  I  shall  reply  cate¬ 
gorically  to  each  one  of  them.  I  know  my  crime  towards  him: 
I  have  disdained  to  incline  my  head  before  his  pride ;  I  have 
loved  for  itself  a  revolution  which  gives  me  my  rights  and  my 
happiness ;  I  have  refused  to  believe  that  it  was  the  work  of  M. 
Lameth,  and  I  have  dared  to  say  so.  I  know  at  what  price  I 
might  have  pleased  him :  I  might  have  consented  that  the  general 
system  of  liberty  should  receive  a  few  exceptions  in  his  favor.”1 

When  Mirabeau  learned  of  this  he  was  in  despair.  “What  I 
foresaw,”  he  wrote  to  La  Marck,  “has  happened;  the  letter  of 
IDuquesnov  received  at  the  Jacobins,  I  absent,  raised  them  to  the 
diapason  of  fury,  and  furnished  M.  Barnave  the  occasion  for  mak¬ 
ing  a  long  enumeration  of  the  services  the  MM.  Lameth  have 
rendered  to  the  revolution,  and  to  declare  that  they  will  perish 
together.  Hence  an  ecstatic  choir  of  applause,  hence  an  insolent 
reply,  hence  especially  the  detestable  consequence  of  uniting  the 
Jacobins  to  their  leaders  instead  of  separating  the  leaders  from 
the  Jacobins  as  my  measures  were  doing.  I  am  indeed  very  dis¬ 
couraged,  very  embarrassed,  very  disappointed  to  have  put  my¬ 
self  forward  so  entirely  alone.”2 

The  reply  of  the  Jacobins  to  the  letter  of  Duquesnoy,  to  which 
Mirabeau  referred,  was  a  resolution  of  confidence  in  the  Lameths 
and  their  friends  in  which  they  showed  at  the  same  time  that 
they  were  aware  of  the  attempts  made  to  disunite  them.  “The 


1  Aulard,  II,  152-54. 

2Bacourt,  III,  letter  of  March  4. 


238 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  1 1 

Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Constitution,”  they  declared, 
“knows  all  the  measures  which  are  being  employed  to  mislead 
public  opinion  and  divide  good  citizens.  It  knows  the  libels  with 
which  the  capital  and  the  departments  are  inundated,  and  it  was 
not  surprised  to  rediscover  the  language  of  them  in  the  letter 
signed  ‘Duquesnoy.’  As  the  only  answer  it  declares  that  the 
declamations  of  the  intriguers  are  in  its  eyes  honorable  titles  for 
the  friends  of  liberty;  that  the  letter  it  has  just  heard  read  adds 
to  its  esteem  and  attachment  for  M.  Alexander  Lameth  and  for 
those  who,  like  him,  have  begun  the  revolution  and  have  sus¬ 
tained  it  without  vacillating.  It  declares  that  all  attacks  upon 
individuals  will  serve  only  to  bind  closer  the  ties  by  which  they 
are  united  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.”1 

This  was  the  last  triumph  of  the  “Triumvirate.” 

It  seems  that  Mirabeau  and  Montmorin  intended  to  ask  depu¬ 
ties  of  the  center,  such  as  D’Andre  and  Beaumetz,  to  return  to 
the  Jacobins,  presumably  to  aid  in  overturning  the  leaders,  but 
the  Duquesnoy  incident  caused  them  to  abandon  this  design.2 
Yet  neither  La  Marck  nor  Montmorin  shared  Mirabeau’s  ex¬ 
treme  discouragement,  being  convinced  that  the  rule  of  the 
Jacobin  leaders  was  near  its  end.3  “Moreover,”  wrote  La  Marck, 
“these  [the  Jacobin  leaders]  no  longer  sustain  themselves  except 
by  the  use  of  cordials,  and  such  remedies  have  never  cured  those 
in  their  death  agonies.”4 

Events  soon  justified  this  belief.  Barnave  and  the  Lameths 
with  their  friends  had  begun  to  fear  the  results  of  their  own 
excesses  and  the  “cordials”  they  had  used  were  to  prove  a  factor 
in  their  undoing,  for  the  suspicions  and  passions  they  had  helped 
to  arouse  overpowered  them  when  they  wished  to  allay  them. 
Below  them  a  group  of  radicals  had  formed  in  the  society,  ready 
to  attack  them  at  the  first  sign  of  weakness  or  the  first  opportu¬ 
nity  that  offered  success.  The  character  of  the  men  in  the  so¬ 
ciety  in  the  spring  of  1791  was  not  that  of  the  spring  of  1790. 

Aulard,  II,  153-54. 

2Bacourt,  III,  Montmorin  to  Mirabeau,  March  3,  1791. 

z  Ibid. 

4Bacourt,  III  79,  La  Marck  to  Mirabeau. 


4 


239 


12 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


The  deputies  were  now  greatly  in  the  minority  and  ignorance 
had  taken  the  place  of  enlightenment.  The  group  of  men  who 
were  to  attack  and  displace  the  Jacobin  leaders  was  largely  com¬ 
posed  of  republicans,  Brissot,  Petion,  Robespierre,  Robert,  and  a 
number  of  others  who  adhered  to  them.  Camille  Desmoulins, 
who  was  a  special  friend  of  Robespierre,  belonged  to  the  same 
group,  but  for  a  long  time  defended  the  Lameths  because  of  their 
services  to  the  revolution.1  Of  these,  Brissot  was  the  most  dan¬ 
gerous  opponent.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Societe  des  amis 
des  noirs,2  and  as  editor  of  the  Patriote  frangaise  represented  it 
in  the  press.  To  this  society  belonged  such  men  as  Mirabeau, 
Petion,  Condorcet,  Sieyes,  Lafayette,  Abbe  Gregoire,  and  La- 
rochefoucauld.  It  was  a  combination  of  the  Amis  des  noirs 
with  the  radicals  and  the  right  of  the  assembly  which  struck  the 
decisive  blow  against  the  Jacobin  leaders,  enabled  to  do  so 
through  the  long  campaign  of  enlightenment  waged  by  Brissot 
and  the  Amis  des  noirs.  Brissot,  whose  enmity  dated  from  the 
decree  of  March  8,  1790,  relative  to  the  colonies,  allowed  no  op¬ 
portunity  of  annoying  them  to  pass.3 

Through  the  agitation  of  the  abolitionists  and  the  principles 
announced  in  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man,  grave  troubles 
had  arisen  in  the  colonies  between  the  planters,  their  slaves,  and 
the  free  mulattos  not  possessed  of  political  rights.  It  was  a  sub¬ 
ject  which  called  for  delicate  treatment  by  the  National  Assem¬ 
bly  and  which  furnished  its*  enemies  a  good  occasion  for  embar¬ 
rassing  it.  A  great  deal  of  hidden  maneuvering  seems  to  have 
been  indulged  in  by  both  parties,  the  Amis  des  noirs  and  their 
supporters  and  the  colonial  deputies,  the  deputies  of  commerce, 
aided  by  a  strong  group  in  the  Jacobin  Club.4  Mosneron  de 
l’Aunay  read  a  paper  at  the  society  on  February  26,  1790,  in 
which  he  strove  to  answer  the  Amis  des  noirs  upon  the  question 
of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  by  admitting  that  it  was  wrong 

1  Patriote  frangaise ,  No.  656,  May  26,  1791. 

2  Founded  in  1787,  a  kind  of  French  abolition  society. 

8 Patriote  frangaise ,  Nos.  515,  543,  545,  546,  553,  566,  582,  598,  609,  and 
many  others  in  1790  and  1791.  All  those  cited  are  in  the  first  three  months 
of  1791. 

4 The  leaders  of  the  Jacobins,  especially  Barnave  and  the  Lameths. 


240 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  13 

from  the  standpoint  of  principle,  but  argued  that  expediency  was 
the  guide  for  statesmen,  and  that  expediency  in  this  instance 
called  loudly  for  a  continuation  of  the  trade;  for,  were  it  to  be 
abolished,  France,  through  the  intrigues  of  England,  favored  by 
the  resulting  disorders,  would  lose  her  colonies.  He  therefore 
asked  the  society  to  declare,  among  other  things,  that  it  did  not 
intend  to  extend  its  decrees  to  the  colonies,  in  order  to  reassure 
the  colonists  by  allowing  them  the  initiative  in  legislation.1 
Mirabeau  answered  De  TAunay  the  same  evening,  opposing  the 
slave  trade,  but  with  what  success  is  not  known,  nor  do  we  know 
what  action,  if  any,  was  taken  by  the  society.2 

That  slavery  and  the  slave  trade  were  inconsistent  with  the 
principles  of  the  National  Assembly  announced  in  the  declaration 
of  the  rights  of  man  was  immediately  apparent  to  everyone,  and 
was  freely  admitted  by  De  TAunay,  and  it  was  the  constant  fear 
of  the  colonists  and  of  those  in  France  directly  interested  in  the 
colonies  that  the  assembly  would  prove  consistent.  But  many 
deputies  preferred  being  inconsistent  to  being  the  cause  of  imme¬ 
diate  disaster  to  France.  Tallyrand,  as  president  of  the  assem¬ 
bly,  replied  to  a  deputation  which  had  asked  for  a  continuation  of 
the  slave  trade,  slavery,  and  the  prohibitive  regime  in  force  with 
regard  to  the  colonies,  that  the  assembly  avouM  know  how  to 
“conciliate  the  rules  of  prudence  and  justice  with  the  principles 
of  liberty.”3  The  subject  came  up  in  the  assembly  on  March  2 
when  Gregoire,  one  of  the  most  ardent  Amis  des  noirs,  read  some 
papers  from  Martinique  in  his  capacity  as  member  of  the  com- 


1  Aulard,  I,  9-17. 

2  This  subject  had  long  been  agitated  in  the  press,  and  many  pamphlets 
and  letters  had  been  published  upon  it.  De  l’Aunay  was  a  “  depute  extra¬ 
ordinaire  du  commerce  de  Nantes,”  to  the  National  Assembly,  and  he  and 
his  five  colleagues  applied  to  Le  Roulx,  deputy  of  Lorient,  to  present  them 
to  the  Jacobins  in  order  to  read  their  address.  Lorient  being  greatly  inter¬ 
ested  commercially,  Le  Roulx  readily  gave  his  aid.  This  attempt  was  made 
toward  the  close  of  January,  but  for  some  unexplained  reason,  the  reading 
of  the  address  was  postponed  after  permission  had  been  received  from  the 
club.  Even  here  “philanthropic  ideas”  w.re  advanced  against  the  grant¬ 
ing  of  permission  to  read  the  address.  Letter  of  Le  Roulx  January  23,  1790. 
MS.  Archives  de  Lorient. 

3  Correspondance  de  Bretagne  (of  the  deputies  of  Rennes),  No.  1,  Febru¬ 
ary  25,  1790. 


241 


14 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


mittee  on  reports.1  It  was  imperative  for  the  opponents  of  the 
Amis  des  noirs  that  the  subject  of  slavery  and  the  slave  trade 
should  never  be  discussed  in  the  assembly  as  an  independent 
question,  for  in  that  case  there  could  be  but  one  issue,  the  Amis 
des  noirs  would  have  had  the  best  of  the  argument,  and  all  France 
would  soon  have  learned  that  the  assembly  had  either  sacrificed 
the  colonies  and  many  home  interests  connected  with  them  or 
that  it  had  formally  contradicted  one  of  its  own  most  funda¬ 
mental  principles.  The  right  foresaw  this  dilemma  and  was 
eager  to  drive  the  assembly  upon  one  or  the  other  of  its  horns. 
Maury  said  triumphantly,  “I  shall  force  you  to  decree  the  free¬ 
dom  of  the  negroes;  it  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  your  prin¬ 
ciples.  Commerce  will  be  ruined,  bankruptcy  will  follow,  and 
you  will  all  be  lost.”2  The  right  of  the  assembly  and  the  Amis 
des  noirs  thus  found  themselves  fighting  for  the  same  object, 
namely,  to  bring  about  a  thorough  discussion  of  these  questions. 
But  they-  were  in  the  minority  and  outmaneuvered  at  the  same 
time.  Alexander  Lameth  interrupted  Gregoire  in  his  reading 
and  moved  that  the  matter  be  referred  to  a  special  committee  on 
colonies.  In  the  debate  which  followed  upon  this  motion  his 
party  was  victorious.  Lameth,  Barnave,  and  a  number  of  the 
colonial  deputies,  who  of  course  favored  the  plan,  were  appointed 
on  the  committee.3  On  March  8,  Barnave,  as  chairman  of  the 
committee,  reported  a  plan  which  left  the  colonies  under  the 
existing  regime  until  they  themselves  should  undertake  to  change 
it,  thus  adopting  the  essential  point  in  the  proposition  De  l’Aunay 
had  made  at  the  Jacobins.4  No  sooner  had  he  concluded  than 
came  reiterated  calls  of  “question !  question !”  Mirabeau,  Petion, 
Gregoire,  who  rushed  to  the  tribune,  failed  to  obtain  the  floor; 
the  discussion  was  “closed”  before  it  had  been  opened,  and  Bar- 
nave’s  decree  passed.5  It  was  a  typical  Jacobin  maneuver,  later 

1  Correspondance  des  deputes  du  departement  d' Angers,  IV,  225-28,  also 
Correspondance  de  Bretagne,  supplement  to  no.  Ill,  1790. 

2 Duquesnoy,y<?«r7m/,  II,  bulletin  of  March  8,  1790. 

3  See  Correspondance  des  deputes  du  department  d' Angers,  IV,  225-28. 
Also  Correspondance  de  Bretagne,  supplement  to  no.  Ill,  1790. 

4Barnave’s  report  with  his  introductory  speech  is  given  in  the  Corre¬ 
spondance  des  dkputks  .  .  .  d' Anjou,  IV,  263-64. 

5  Bulletin  de  Brest,  volume  for  1790,  no.  29. 


242 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  15 

credited  to  Barnave  alone,  and  one  which  his  enemies  never 
pardoned. 

Barnave  says  in  his  Memoir es  that  his  decrees  upon  the  col¬ 
onies  gave  him  his  popularity  as  well  as  robbed  him  of  it.1  With 
the  more  sane  men,  still  dominant  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  and  at 
large  his  practical  measures  may  well  have  won  him  support. 
Certain  it  is  that  he  and  the  Lafneths  from  this  time  on  gained 
greatly  in  popularity  and  prominence  and  became  the  recognized 
leaders  of  the  Jacobins  from  whom  the  formerly  influential  mem¬ 
bers  were  beginning  to  withdraw.  A  fresh  discussion  of  the 
colonial  difficulties  found  the  Jacobin  “Triumvirate”  approach¬ 
ing  the  crisis  of  their  career.  If  at  the  close  of  1790  they  had 
found  it  necessary  to  inaugurate  a  campaign  of  denunciation  in 
order  to  sustain  themselves,  how  much  more  was  this  necessary 
now  when  all  appeals  to  moderation  and  prudence  were  regarded 
as  evidence  of  perfidy  or  reaction.  It  was  therefore  extremely 
unfortunate  for  them  that,  at  the  very  moment  when  they  were 
attempting  to  retrace  their  steps,  they  should  have  been  con¬ 
fronted  with  the  necessity  of  defending  a  colonial  policy  which 
had  now  become  unpopular.  Thanks  to  Brissot,  to  Mirabeau, 
to  the  Amis  des  noirs,  the  affiliated  societies  and  France  gener¬ 
ally  had  been  enlightened  upon  the  maneuvers  that  had  resulted 
in  the  decree  of  March  8,  and  upon  the  inconsistencies  of  which 
the  assembly  had  been  guilty  in  passing  it.2  Some  of  the  affili¬ 
ated  societies  protested  in  addresses  which  Brissot  printed  with 
the  intention  of  destroying  his  enemies.3  Then  the  society  on 
March  11  adopted  an  address  to  the  affiliated  societies  urging 
moderation,  Brissot  attacked  Barnave,  who  had  drawn  up  the 
address,  ridiculing  his  language  and  condemning  the  advice  it 


1  Oeuvres  de  Barnave ,  mises  en  ordre  et  p?eckdees  d'  une  notice  historique 
sur  Barnave  par  M.  Berenger  de  la  Drome  (Paris,  1843),  II,  366. 

2  After  the  decree  of  March  8,  a  part  of  no.  CCXLVII  of  the  Courricr  de 
Provence  was  devoted  to  enlightening  its  readers  upon  this  subject  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  had  been  disposed  of.  The  Amis  des  noirs  even  ad¬ 
dressed  some  of  their  literature  to  the  societies  affiliated  to  the  lacobins 
( Patriote  frangaise ,  nos.  607,  617). 

3  See  Patriote  frangaise ,  nos.  598,  602,  604. 


243 


i6 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


contained  as  dangerous  to  the  revolution.1  Gorsas  seconded 
Brissot  and  asked,  “When  will  M.  Barnave  have  done  with  these 
attempts  to  carry  measures  by  storm?”  referring  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  address  was  carried  in  the  society  and  the  decree 
of  March  8  in  the  assembly.2 

Despite  the  reassuring  character  of  the  decrees  of  the  assem¬ 
bly  the  colonists  had  remained  discontented,  and  Barnave  and 
his  supporters  now  urged  that  the  declaration  of  non-interfer¬ 
ence  be  incorporated  in  the  constitution  in  order  that  the  status 
of  the  individual,  the  all-important  question,  might  no  longer  be 
subject  to  regulation  by  mere  legislative  decree.3  The  debate, 
extremely  violent,  was  carried  on  simultaneously  in  the  National 
Assembly  and  the  Jacobin  Club.  Brissot,  aided  by  Petion,  on 
May  ii  found  the  courage  to  attack  Barnave  in'  the  club  but 
sustained  a  defeat.4  Two  days  later  Robespierre  and  a  certain 
mulatto  continued  the  attack,  this  time  with  success.5  Charles 
Lameth,  who  tried  to  defend  his  party,  was  driven  from  the  trib¬ 
une  with  shouts  of  hostility.6  The  next  day  they  were  defeated 
in  the  National  Assembly  also.7  On  May  29,  the  conservative 
committee  on  correspondence,  of  which  Barnave  and  the  two 
Lameths  were  the  most  prominent  members,  was  changed.8 

With  the  fall  of  the  “Triumvirate,”  the  Jacobin  Club  lost  the 
only  element  which  could  still  have  directed  it  along  moderate 
lines  and  preserved  it  from  the  excesses  which  were  later  to  give 

1  Aulard,  II,  189-92.  Address  given  on  pp.  185-89.  Aulard  does  not 
assign  any  definite  date  to  the  address,  but  the  Feuille  du  jour ,  no.  76,  states 
that  it  was  adopted  on  March  11. 

2  Courrier  de  Paris ,  XXII,  no.  13. 

3 Moniteur,  VII,  no.  128. 

4  This  fact  is  given  in  the  Lendemain ,  May  13,  1791,  and  Feuille  du  jour , 
May  14, 1791,  both  opposition  papers,  but  there  seems  no  good  reason  for  re¬ 
jecting  the  evidence  in  this  case,  especially  since  both  journals  seem  never 
to  have  invented  the  bare  facts  although  they  frequently  distorted  them. 
It  should  be  added  that  from  the  similarity  of  their  accounts  it  is  clear  that 
these  two  journals  used  a  common  source  in  nearly  everything  they  pub¬ 
lished  relative  to  the  Jacobin  meetings. 

5  Aulard,  II,  412-15.  Accounts  taken  from  Journal  de  la  revolutions 
May  15,  1791,  and  Le  Lendemain  of  the  same  date. 

6  Le  Lendemain,  May  15,  1791. 

7  Point  dujour ,  XXII,  no.  673. 

8  Courrier  de  Paris ,  by  Gorsas,  XXIV,  no.  31. 


244 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  17 

it  such  an  odious  reputation.  Although  no  deputies  at  this  time 
formally  severed  their  connection  with  the  society,  few  continued 
to  attend  its  meetings.  This  was  the  moment  of  the  real  seces¬ 
sion  of  the  deputies,  although  the  formal  declaration  of  separa¬ 
tion  was  not  made  until  the  17th  of  July  following.1  There  was 
no  change  of  constitution,  but  the  society  from  now  on  no  longer 
remained  true  to  its  original  aims,  namely,  to  sustain  and  pop¬ 
ularize  the  work  of  the  National  Assembly. 

Of  the  character  of  the  debates  and  the  composition  of  the 
society  about  this  time  several  witnesses  have  left  us  contem¬ 
porary  or  almost  contemporary  accounts.  The  deputies  of  Maine 
et  Loire,  writing  to  the  Friends  of  the  Constitution  of  Angers, 
July  20,  1791,  give  such  a  vivid  picture  of  conditions  in  the  so¬ 
ciety  that  I  quote  them  at  length.  ‘‘The  undersigned,  deputies 
of  Maine  et  Loire,”  they  wrote,  “all  founders  or  members  of  the 
Club  of  the  Friends  of  the  Constitution  at  the  Jacobins  of  Paris, 
believed  that  it  was  their  duty  to  separate  themselves  from  it 
last  Saturday  with  almost  all  their  colleagues;  [of  the  National 
Assembly]  only  four  or  five  remained.  They  thought  that  it 
was  no  longer  appropriate  for  them  to  remain  in  an  association 
of  which  they  were  believed  to  have  the  direction  and  the  ma¬ 
jority,  when  that  same  association,  formerly  so  useful  for  the 
destruction  of  tyranny  and  the  reedification  of  a  regular  govern¬ 
ment  based  upon  reason,  has  come  to  be  guided  by  a  crowd  of 
foreigners  who  have  obtained  admittance,  who  have  nothing  to 
lose,  and  of  whom  the  major  portion  is  paid  by  these  same  for¬ 
eigners  who  desire  absolutely  to  cause  our  revolution  to  fail  like 
that  of  Brabant.  From  that  time,  this  assembly  presented  only 
the  image  of  an  assembly  of  furies  who  believed  they  could  be 
useful  to  the  country  only  in  preaching  disorder  and  anarchy 
and  in  degrading  all  authority  by  causing  the  people  to  destroy 
them  and  who  not  only  for  six  weeks  or  two  months  suffered  the 
expression  of  but  one  opinion,  reasonable  or  not  unless  it  were 
incendiary,  but  even  drove  out  with  violence  members  who  ex¬ 
pressed  an  opinion  contrary  to  the  one  our  most  cruel  enemies 
could  most  desire  because  it  evidently  led  us  to  civil  war.  Never- 

Aulard,  III,  30. 


245 


i8 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


theless,  we  do  not  pretend  that  the  club  is  composed  entirely  of 
men  such  as  we  have  described;  indeed,  a  very  large  portion  of 
the  members  not  deputies  to  the  National  Assembly  have  with¬ 
drawn  from  the  club,  and  among  those  who  show  themselves  the 
most  fanatic  there  are  unquestionably  many  honest  and  estimable 
citizens  who,  not  having  studied  mankind  sufficiently  and  esti¬ 
mated  the  elements  which  ought  to  compose  a  government,  al¬ 
though  these  elements  are  everywhere  the  same,  because  reason 
is  indivisible,  ought  nevertheless  to  be  differently  combined  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  country,  the  population,  the  customs,  language, 
civilization,  wealth,  commerce,  etc.,  and,  allowing  themselves  to 
be  drawn  on  by  a  just  indignation,  think  only  of  a  vengeance 
which  is  without  doubt  very  legitimate,  but  not  thinking  that 
long  years  of  frightful  misfortunes  and  the  loss  of  liberty  will 
be  the  necessary  consequences  of  their  action.  These  persons, 
misled  by  detestable  men  who  profit  by  the  inconsiderate  ardor 
of  noble  and  generous  souls,  make  of  them  the  instruments  of 
their  ambitious  projects  and  seek  by  their  aid  to  open  the  door 
to  the  most%  unbridled  factions.'’1 

One  might  suspect  from  the  tone  of  this  letter  that  the  writers 
Exaggerated  the  faults  of  the  society  in  order  to  better  justify 
their  own  action  in  withdrawing  from  it,  but,  unfortunately,  their 
testimony  is  only  too  well  borne  out  by  that  of  the  intelligent 
Prussian,  Conrad  Oelsner,  who  was  a  member  of  the  club  and 
reasonably  free  from  partisanship.2  Most  convincing,  however, 
is  the  official  record  of  the  club  itself  giving  the  outline  of  the 
debates  beginning  with  June  i,  1791. 3  In  reading  this,  one  is 
tempted  to  believe  the  accounts  of  their  meetings  given  in  the 

1 Journal  du  departement  de  Maine  et  Loire ,  published  by  the  Amis  de  la 
constitution  of  Angers.  Bib.  Nat.  Lc.  ,0/ 229. 

2Luzifer  oder  Gereinigte  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  franzosischen  Re- 
volution.  Erster  Theil  (1797),  160.  Among  other  things  he  wrote  in  the 
spring  of  1791:  Es  hat  sich  eine  Menge  rollelustiger  Gliicksritter  und 
Ehrgeiziger  angedrangt,  die,  um  zu  Kredit  zu  gelangen,  einen  schreienden 
Patriotismus  affichirt  und  zu  jedem  ausschweifenden  Projeckte  die  Hand 
bietet.  Tumult  und  Bitterkeiten  ersticken  die  Stimme  der  aufgeklarten 
Massigung,  und  haben  viele  scharfsehende,  aber  furchtsame  oder  zu  un- 
rechten  Zeit  empfindliche  Leute  verscheucht,  etc. 

3 Journal  des  debats  de  la  societe  des  amis  de  la  constitution ,  seant  aux 
Jacobins ,  d  Paris.  Republished  by  Aulard,  II. 


246 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club  19 

hostile  journals,  Le  Lendemain  and  Le  Feuille  du  jour,  often  the 
only  record  we  possess  before  the  official  journal  just  mentioned 
was  published. 

The  Jacobin  leaders  were  driven  from  the  club  because  they 
were  no  longer  in  sympathy  with  it.  They  had  been  true,  in  out¬ 
ward  form  at  least,  to  the  published  principles  of  the  society, 
whereas  the  radicals  who  had  succeeded  them  in  the  favor  of  its 
members  had  come  to  regard  the  assembly  as  reactionary  and 
not  to  be  trusted.  But  it  was  not  until  the  flight  of  the  king  that 
the  society  assumed  an  attitude  that  forced  the  deputies  to  with¬ 
draw  from  it  in  order  not  to  appear  in  a  false  light.  The  con¬ 
stitution  was  monarchical  and  almost  all  the  deputies  were 
monarchists.  The  Jacobins  also  were  avowed  monarchists,  al¬ 
though  they  had  long  ceased  to  show  monarchical  sentiments  in 
their  discussions.  Many  had  expressed  their  bitterness  against 
the  ministers  and  all  the  other  servants  of  the  king,  but  either 
through  policy  or  an  irrational  sentiment  excused  the  king  him¬ 
self.  The  king  was  eternally  the  dupe  of  his  counsellors.  The 
flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes  was  more,  however,  than  most  of 
the  Jacobins  were  able  to  excuse  upon  this  theory,  and  the  ques¬ 
tion  as  to  what  should  be  done  with  the  king  was  openly  brought 
to  discussion. 

But  the  deputies  who  had  informally  withdrawn  made  one 
more  effort  to  regain  control  of  the  society,  making  the  flight  of 
the  king  the  occasion  for  the  attempt.  This  attempt  was  fore¬ 
seen  by  the  man,  perhaps,  most  interested,  Robespierre,  who  suc¬ 
cessfully  defeated  it.  The  Jacobins  had  met  at  noon  on  the  21st 
of  Tune,  1791,  in  extraordinary  session,  with  all  excitement  stu¬ 
diously  suppressed,  as  it  was  in  the  whole  of  Paris.  For  once  the 
agitators  now  in  possession  intended  to  aid  in  preventing  dis¬ 
turbances,  and  sent  out  some  of  its  members  to  preach  peace  and 
calm  in  the  public  places.1  The  entrance  of  Robespierre,  fresh 
from  the  National  Assembly,  changed  the  entire  tone  of  the 
meeting,  which  now  became  intensely  dramatic.  Robespierre 
represented  France  as  in  the  greatest  danger,  not  because  the 
king  had  fled  to  return  at  the  head  of  a  foreign  army,  but  be- 

1  Aulard,  II,  532. 

247 


20 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


cause  of  the  friends  he  had  left  behind,  many  of  whom  it  was 
impossible  to  distinguish  from  the  patriots.  “What  frightens 
me  most,”  he  exclaimed,  “is  that  which  seems  to  reassure  every¬ 
one  else.  .  .  .  It  is  that  this  morning  all  our  enemies  speak 

the  same  language  as  ourselves.  All  are  reunited,  all  wear  the 
same  countenance.”  The  minority  long  since  and  the  entire  Na¬ 
tional  Assembly  with  its  committees  had  shown  by  its  action  that 
morning  that  it  was  in  the  plot  with  the  king  for  the  destruction 
of  liberty.  “And  as  if  this  coalition  were  not  enough,  I  know 
that  presently  it  will  be  proposed  that  you  unite  with  all  your 
most  notorious  enemies ;  in  a  moment,  all  of  ’89,  the  mayor,  the 
general,  the  ministers,  it  is  said,  will  arrive!  How  can  we  es¬ 
cape  ?”  He  concluded  by  saying  that  he  knew  that  in  the  denun¬ 
ciations  he  had  just  made  he  had  drawn  a  thousand  assassins 
upon  himself,  but  he  would  receive  death  almost  as  a  blessing 
because  it  would  spare  him  the  sight  of  the  evils  he  saw  were 
inevitable.  Upon  this,  the  eight  hundred  or  more  members  pres¬ 
ent  arose  and  swore  that  they  would  sacrifice  their  lives  in  pro¬ 
tecting  him.1 

As  Robespierre  concluded,  the  arrival  of  the  deputies  was  an¬ 
nounced,  whereupon  Danton  sprang  to  his  feet  and  exclaimed: 
“Gentlemen,  if  the  traitors  present  themselves  here  I  take  the 
formal  engagement  with  you  to  leave  my  head  upon  the  scaffold 
or  prove  that  theirs  ought  to  fall  at  the  feet  of  the  nation  they 
have  betrayed.”  Seeing  Lafayette  among  those  who  had  en¬ 
tered,  he  violently  apostrophised  him,  going  over  the  entire  list 
of  grievances  the  radical  members  of  the  club  had  long  held 
against  him.  “And  you,  M.  Lafayette,  who  only  recently  re¬ 
sponded  for  the  person  of  the  king  with  your  head,  do  you  pay 
your  debt  in  appearing  in  this  assembly?  You  have  sworn  that 
the  king  would  not  depart.  Either  you  have  betrayed  your  coun¬ 
try  or  you  are  stupid  in  having  answered  for  a  person  for  whom 
you  could  not  answer.  In  the  more  favorable  case,  you  are  de¬ 
clared  incapable  of  commanding  us.  .  .  .  France  can  be 

free  without  you.  Your  power  weighs  upon  the  eighty-four  de¬ 
partments.  Your  reputation  has  passed  from  pole  to  pole.  Do 

1  Revolutions  de  France  et  de  Brabant ,  no.  82.  Aulard,  II,  553. 


248 


On  the  Conflict  of  Parties  in  the  Jacobin  Club 


21 


you  wish  to  be  really  great  ?  Become  a  simple  citizen  again,  and 
no  longer  nourish  the  just  distrust  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
people.”1 2 

A  strange  spectacle  followed  this  attack  of  Danton.  Alex¬ 
ander  Lameth,  whose  thundering  anathema  had  on  the  28th  of 
February  preceding  fallen  on  Mirabeau  and  Lafayette  alike,  now 
stepped  forward  in  the  latter’s  defense.  “I  have  always  re¬ 
garded  M.  Lafayette  as  one  of  the  firmest  supports  of  the  con¬ 
stitution,”  he  said,  “and  although  I  have  often  blamed  his  con¬ 
duct  and  under  some  circumstances  spoken  of  him  perhaps  with 
bitterness,  1  have  told  M.  Danton  himself  that  if  the  constitution 
were  in  danger  Lafayette  would  die  for  it  sword  in  hand.  .  .  . 

It  is  necessary  to  abjure  all  hate,  cause  every  division  to  cease, 
in  order  to  disconcert  all  the  maneuvers  of  the  enemies  of  liberty 
and  march  with  a  sure  and  firm  step  to  the  completion  of  the 
constitution.”- 

After  Lameth,  the  proud  Lafayette,  whom  neither  prayers  nor 
denunciations  had  moved  to  return  to  the  Jacobins,  humiliated 
himself  in  attempting  a  defense  before  those  whom  he  despised. 
He  spoke  but  a  few  very  unsatisfactory  words.  Sieyes  was  more 
successful  in  explaining  away  a  certain  address  of  his,  very 
obnoxious  to  the  Jacobins,  and  Barnave  succeeded  in  another 
“Triomphe  d’assaut”  in  causing  an  address  to  the  affiliated  so¬ 
cieties,  drawn  up  by  himself,  to  be  adopted,  in  which  it  was  said 
that  “All  divisions  are  forgotten,  all  patriots  are  reunited.  The 
National  Assembly  is  our  guide,  the  constitution  our  rallying 
cry.”3 

This  address,  the  official  attitude  of  the  club  only  in  form, 
must  not  be  allowed  to  mislead  us.  The  debates  in  the  club 
show  us  that  this  attempted  reunion  was  a  complete  failure.  The 
deputies,  if  they  ever  returned  in  any  considerable  number,  re¬ 
mained  silent  and  without  influence.4  Lafayette,  whose  answer 

1  Revolutions  de  France  et  de  Brabant ,  no.  82.  Aulard,  II,  553. 

2 Ibid.,  II,  536. 

3  Aulard,  11,538. 

4  See  the  debates  during  the  latter  part  of  June  and  the  beginning  of  July 
as  given  in  the  official  journal  republished  by  Aulard,  II.  A  few  of  the 


249 


22 


Charles  Kuhlmann 


to  Danton  was  considered  very  unsatisfactory,  refused  the  in¬ 
vitation  to  come  to  the  club  and  make  another.1  The  society 
continued  its  tumultuous  sessions  as  before,  inclining  more  and 
more  to  the  view  that  the  king  had  forfeited  his  right  to  the 
throne — that  is,  taking  a  position  more  and  more  in  opposition 
to  the  National  Assembly — until,  on  the  17th  of  July,  1791,  the 
deputies  who  were  still  nominally  members  of  it  formally  with¬ 
drew  and  formed  the  new  society  of  the  Feuillants. 


more  radical  deputies  had  always  remained  with  the  club,  and  on  June  29 
Charles  Lameth  is  mentioned  in  the  debates  as  objecting  to  some  remarks 
of  Anthoine  against  certain  persons  whom  he  did  not  name,  but  received 
little  applause  and  a  great  many  “ murmures"  (“ murmures  excessifs"). 

1  Aulard,  II,  547. 


250 


III. — On  the  Substantivation  of  Adjectives  in  Chaucer 


BY  ARTHUR  GARFIELD  KENNEDY 


INTRODUCTION 

The  substantivation  of  adjectives  in  English  has,  like  most 
other  processes  of  our  language,  been  so  gradual  that  it  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  fix  the  beginning  of  it  in  the  case  of  any  particular  word 
or  group  of  words,  or  at  any  one  time  to  measure  accurately  its 
progress.  Perhaps  the  most-  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  by 
comparing  the  data,  made  up  from  the  writings  of  authors  of 
different  periods.  This  investigation  is  offered  as  a  study  of  the 
process  of  substantivation  of  adjectives  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
as  shown  in  the  writings  of  Chaucer. 

Kellner1  names  three  ways  in  which  adjectives  become  sub¬ 
stantivized  :  first,  the  quality  of  a  thing  is  so  striking  that  the 
name  of  the  adjective  is  adopted  for  the  substantive  itself.  So 
gold  was  originally  ‘the  yellow  metal/  wheat,  the  Svhite  grain/ 
etc.  Secondly,  ellipsis  may  bring  about  this  process  of  substan¬ 
tivation.  Since  the  adjective  conveys  the  idea  of  the  noun  to 
which  it  is  attached,  the  noun  is  dropped.  So  we  have  the  Al¬ 
mighty,  a  saint,  a  sage,  the  good,  etc.  Finally,  adjectives  are 
used  as  substantives  when  they  denote  abstract  ideas,  as  good, 
evil,  ill,  etc. 

Adjectives  *nay  be  used  in  different  degrees  of  substantivation. 
One  usage  which  was  quite  common  a  few  centuries  ago  was 
that  in  which  the  adjective  modifies  a  preceding  noun.  When 
Chaucer  says,  “ A  true  swynk  and  a  good  was  he/’  we  feel  that 
good  is,  at  least  partially,  a  substantive.  Again,  the  use  of  the 

1  Outlines  of  English  Syntax,  pp.  144-50. 


University  Studies,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  July  1905. 


251 


2 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


adjective  with  one  has  gradually  become  more  common.  To 
say  “the  bravest  one  I  ever  knew”  is  quite  in  keeping  with  mod¬ 
ern  usage.  The  most  complete  substantiation,  however,  re¬ 
quires  no  other  word  for  the  adjective  to  lean  upon.  Thus  we 
say,  the  good,  the  true,  the  beautiful,  the  unknown  dead,  for 
‘goodness/  ‘truth/  ‘principle  of  beauty/  etc. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of 
the  causes  and  beginnings  of  this  process  of  substantiation. 
The  most  probable  cause  seems  to  be  that  of  the  force  which  Pro¬ 
fessor  Paul1  calls  “economy  of  expression.”  It  would  seem  the 
most  natural  thing  to  abbreviate  the  noble  people  to  the  noble,  or 
the  Old  English  se  betsta  guma  to  se  betsta,  especially  if  the  ex¬ 
pression  is  so  common  that  no  one  would  misunderstand  it. 
This  seems  especially  probable  when  we  note  that  most  of  the 
substantivized  adjectives  in  the  Beowulf  and  the  earlier  English 
literature  are  personal  substantives. 

SUBSTANTIATION  OF  ADJECTIVES  IN  OLD  ENGLISH 

Many  words  which  are  nouns,  pure  and  simple,  in  Chaucer’s 
day,  have  been  developed  from  earlier  adjectives  or  participles. 
As  examples  we  have  strete,  from  Latin  strata  via;  mile,  from 
Latin  milia  passuum ;  frend,  for  Gothic  frijonds;  side,  for  Old 
English  sid;  wheat  and  gold  have  been  mentioned;  and  many 
others  might  be  cited. 

In  the  Beowulf  we  find  the  prevailing  usage, — the  adjective 
for  the  person  described: 

Hafde  se  goda  .  .  .  cempan  gecorone,  1.  205.  Cf.  also  355, 

.  676,  1191,  etc. — Gewat  him  pa  se  hearda,  1.  1964.  hares  hyrste 
Higelace  bar,  1.  2988. — on  pam  serzVabad,  1. 310. — Nafre  .ic  *maran 
geseah  eorla  ofer  eoraan,  11.  247-48. — cwaea  pat  se  almightiga 
eordan  worhte,  1.  92. — pat  he  on  eoraa  geseah  pone  leofestan  lifes 
at  ende,  1.  2834. 

Gradually,  after  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  we  find  a  broaden¬ 
ing  in  the  use  of  substantivized  adjectives.  Many  examples  ap- 

1  Principien  der  Sprachgeschichte,  p.  263. 


252 


Substantivation  in  Chaucer 


3 


pear  in  Chaucer  of  words  of  French  origin  which  seem  to  have 
been  used  substantively  for  a  long  time.  As  examples  Einenkel1 
gives  the  following: 

laxatyf,  equnoxial,  digestives,  necessaries,  moeubles, 
contraries,  the  stiff  rant,  his  pacient,  this  innocent,  pen- 
etentys,  nobles,  etc. 

II.  SUBSTANTIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES  IN  CHAUCER 

For  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  substantivation  of  adjectives 
in  Chaucer  we  must  consider  examples  of  all  three  usages, 
namely,  qualifying  a  preceding  noun,  with  one,  and  without  one, 
as  a  pure  substantive.  Then  a  comparison  can  be  made  with 
reference  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  three  in  Chaucer’s 
time.  Also  it  might  Jie  of  interest  and  profitable  to  compare  the 
use  of  positives,  comparatives,  and  superlatives  in  this  respect. 
The  syntactical  relations  of  substantivized  adjectives  seem  to 
demand  consideration.  In  what  constructions  do  we  find  them 
prevailing?  Do  they  appear  in  any  special  constructions  in 
Chaucer?  Finally,  and  of  some  importance  it  seems  to  me,  are 
the  questions  and  theories  relating  to  the  beginnings  of  this 
process  of  substantivation.  Is  it  a  native  tendency  or  does  it 
come  into  the  language  through  some  foreign  influence?  Are 
the  adjectives  so  substantivized  largely  native  words  or  foreign? 
Perhaps  a  careful  comparison  of  the  two  elements  will  throw  a 
little  light  on  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  adjective  substantiv¬ 
ation. 

Einenkel  makes  a  distinction,  which  might  well  be  kept  in 
mind  all  through  the  consideration  of  this  subject,  between  ad¬ 
jectives  previously,  and  hence  thoroughly,  substantivized,  and 
those  which  are  substantivized  merely  for  the  occasion.  For 
instance,  we  think  of  nobles  as  a  pure  noun  but  the  wise  as  a 
temporary  substantive  only.  This  distinction  will  be  touched 
upon  again,  however. 


1  Streifziige  durch  die  Mittelenglische  Syntax. 


253 


4  Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 

i 

A.  Semi-substantivized  adjectives  referring  to  preceding  nouns. 

This  use  of  the  adjective  is  quite  common  in  Chaucer.  No 
attempt  will  be  made  to  cover  the  field  entirely,  but  simply  to 
give  illustrations  wThich  seem  most  characteristic. 

A  theef  he  was,  forsoth,  of  corn  and  mele,  And  that  a  sleigh. 
Reeves  Tale,  20. — A  true  swynk  and  a  good  was  he.  Cant. 
Tales:  Prologue,  531. — of  Gamelyn  the  bolde.  Tale  of  Gamelyn, 

290. — of  Gamelyn  the  yonge.  ibid.,  342. — At  the  root  of  Vesulus 
the  colde.  Clerkes  Tale,  2. — this  January  the  olde.  Marchaundes 
Tale,  798. — For  sche  was  on  the  fairest  under  sonne.  Frankel- 
eynes  Tale,  6. — Ther  was  a  monk,  a  fair  man  and  a  bold. 
Schipmannes  Tale,  25. — but  a  governour,  a  wily  and  a  wyse. 
Prologue  of  Monkes  Tale,  52. — this  Seneca  the  wyse.  Monkes 
Tale,  525. — To  Cupido  the  recheles.  Hous  of  Fame,  Bk.  II.  160. — 
Gaweyn  the  worthy.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  2209. 

B.  Substantivized  adjectives  used  with  one. 

This  use  of  the  adjective  is  very  limited  in  Chaucer.  And  not 
only  are  there  few  examples  of  it,  but  there  is  not  much  variety 
in  the  adjectives  so  used.  Varying  forms  of  our  modern  such 
appear  most  common. 

That  han  swich  oon  icaught  withouten  net.  Troylus  and  Cry- 
seyde,  Bk.  II.  583. — To  slane  swice  oon.  ibid.  Bk.  II.  265. — I 
am  oon  the  fayreste.  ibid.  Bk.  II.  746. — with  swich  oon  as  he 
is.  ibid,  Bk.  V,  740. — For  I  have  falsed  oon  the  gentileste  and 
oon  the  worthyeste.  ibid,  Bk.  V.  1050. — that  betrisshed  many 
oon.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  1648. — Thou  herdest  never  sich  oon, 

I  trow.  ibid.  5409. — Ymaginynge  that  travaille  nor  game  Ne 
myghte  for  so  goodely  one  be  lorne.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk. 

I.  372. — As  help  me  God  I  was  a  lusty  one.  Prologue  of  Wyf 
of  Bathe.  605. 

Einenkel1  gives  the  last  two  examples  and  adds,  “Dies  sind 
die  beiden  einzigen  Falle  wo  ich  das  Zahlwort  beim  positiven 
Adjectiv  entdecken  konnte.  Sein  eigentlicher  Platz  ist  beim 
Superlativ.”  Illustrative  of  the  latter  statement  he  gives  the 
following : 

1  Streifziige  durch  die  Mitt elenglis che  Syntax,  p.  27. 


254 


Substantivation  in  Chaucer 


5 


A  maide  oon  of  this  worlde  the  best  preysed .  Troylus  and  Cry- 
seyde,  Bk.  V.  1474. — Of  hire  delite  or  joies  oon  the  leste.  ibid. 

Bk.  III.  1261. — For  sche  was  on  the  fairest  under  sonne.  Frank- 
eleynes  Tale,  6. 

Examples  might  also  be  given  of  the  use  of  adjectives  with 
other  weakened  substantives  such  as  man ,  woman,  thing,  etc. 
Often  with  these  words,  just  as  with  one,  the  adjective  becomes 
slightly  substantivized.  In  the  case  of  most  of  these,  however, 
the  substantivation  is  not  far  enough  advanced  to  make  them 
worthy  of  special  comment. 

C.  Substantivized  adjectives  used  without  one. 

Adjectives  substantivized  without  the  aid  of  one  are  very 
common  in  Chaucer.  Of  course  there  are  varying  degrees  of 
substantivation.  Sometimes  we  feel  that  the  adjective  force  of 
the  word  has  largely  been*  lost  sight  of,  as  in  nobles ,  gentils ,  or 
goode  (meaning  property),  at  last  (used  adverbially),  elders, 
etc.  At  other  times  the  word  is  little  more  than  an  adjective, 
even  though  it  stands  in  the  place  of  a  noun. 

i.  As  personal  substantives  in  singular  and  plural  (without 
-s).  This  use  of  the  adjective  is  very  common.  In  a  compara¬ 
tively  thorough  examination  of  Chaucer  I  have  noted  137  ex¬ 
amples,  including  66  different  forms. 

Of  the  plural  personal  substantives  the  following  are  good 
examples : 

to  visit  the  ferrest  in  his  parrische.  Cant.  Tales  Prologue,  493. — ■ 

We  will  slee  the  gultyf.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gamelyn,  822. — Herkneth 
what  is  the  sentens  of  the  wyse.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  15. — Faire 
they  were  welcomed,  bothe  leste  and  meste.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gam¬ 
elyn,  460. — That  at  the  fest  leet  slee  bothe  more  and  lesse.  Man 
of  Lawes  Tale,  861. — And  further  goeth  all  the  contre  bothe 
moste  and  leste.  Court  of  Love,  1431. — Sche  was  not  with  the 
leste  of  hire  stature.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  I.  281. — he  com- 
mendeth  with  the  beste.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  76. — and  bothe  of 
yonge  and  olde  Ful  wel  beloved.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  I. 

129. — “Trentals”  sayd  he,  “delyvereth  from  penance  Her  frendes 
soules  as  wel  eld  as  yonge.”  Sompnoures  Tale,  16. — Therfore 


5 


255 


6 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


she  stood  in  love  and  grace  Of  riche  and  poore  in  every  place. 
Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  1169-70.— Born  of  the  gentilest  and  the 
heighest  of  this  land.  Clerkes  Tale,  75. — he  wil  not  visite  the 
sike.  Persones  Tale. — And  ponysche  .  .  .  the  false  untrew 
Court  of  Love,  582. — she  pleyeth  with  fre  and  bonde.  Troylus 
and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  I.  840. — Lered  or  lewde  lord  or  lady.  Ro¬ 
maunt  of  the  Rose,  6620. — Whereso  thou  comest,  amonges 
heih  or  loz ve.  Maunciples  Tale,  257. — alle  the  grettest  that  were 
of  that  land.  Tale  of  the  Pardoner,  145. — Men  seyn  the  suffrant 
overcomth,  parde.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  IV.  1556. — For 
he  nought  helpeth  the  needful  in  his  need.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale, 

14. 

So  also  we  find  gulteles,  all  wo  f idle,  the  meekest,  the  unzvorth- 
ieste,  etc. 

Of  the  use  of  the  adjective  as  a  singular  personal  substantive 
we  find  many  examples. 

I  not  which  was  the  fairer  of  hem  two.  Cant.  Tales :  Prologue, 

190. — Feirest  of  alle  that  ever  were  or  be!  Court  of  Love,  631. — 

Best  unto  best.  ibid.  594. — So  stant  this  innocent  before  the 
king.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  520. — I  have  a  wyf,  the  worste  that 
may  be.  Prologe  of  Marchaundes  Tale,  6. — The  foul  royal  above 
yow  in  degree  The  wyse  and  worthy.  .  .  .  Assembly  of 
Foules,  395. — This  yongest  which  that  went  to  the  toun.  Tale 
of  the  Pardoner,  375. —  .  .  .  the  Romayn,  Galien  Ne  dorste 

never  been  so  ,corageous,  Ne  noon  Ermyn,  ne  noon  Arabien, 

Ne  Surrien,  ne  noon  Egipcien.  Monkes  Tale,  348. — But  if  for 
love  of  som  Troyan  it  were.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  V. 

877. — though  that  be  true,  my  dere.  Court  of  Love,  173. — That 
every  yere  wolde  have  a  newe.  Hous  of  Fame,  302. — and  she 
was  holden  there  A  seint.  Legende  of  Lucrecie,  192. — the  worth- 
ieste  of  knyghthode  ...  of  blode  the  gentyleste.  Assembly 
of  Foules,  548. — ye  lovers,  for  the  konnyngeste  of  yow.  .  .  . 

Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk.  V.  331. — a  covey  tons  and  a  wriche. 
ibid.  Bk.  II.  1324. — Tellynge  his  tale  alway,  this  olde  greye. 
ibid.  Bk.  IV.  99. — Now  writeth,  swete.  ibid.  Bk.  V.  1399. — The 
formest  was  alway  behynde.  Boke  of  the  Duchesse,  889. — Hum¬ 
blest  of  herte,  higheste  of  reverence.  Compleynte  Unto  Pite, 

57. — Now  faire  blisfulle,  O  Cipris.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk. 

II.  10. — But  nothing  thinketh  the  fals  as  doth  the  trewe.  An- 
elyda  and  Arcite,  168. — In  love  a  falser  herde  I  never  none. 
Legende  of  Phillis,  5. — The  stronge  the  feble  overgoth.  Romaunt 
of  the  Rose,  6823. — He  kepte  his  pacient  wondurly  wel.  Cant. 


256 


Substantiation  in  Chaucer 


7 


Tales :  Prologue,  415. — The  neye  stye  maketh  the  ferre  leef  to 
be  loth.  Milleres  Tale,  206. — Ne  never  saugh  I  a  more  bounte- 
vous  .  .  .  ne  a  more  graciouse.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde,  Bk. 

I.  883. — And  therto  I  saugh  never  a  less  Harmful  than  she  was 
in  doinge.  Boke  of  the  Duchesse,  993. — Emelye,  the  rewfullest 
of  al  the  companye.  Knyghtes  Tale,  2028. 

2.  As  personal  substantives  in  plural  (with  As  we  would 
naturally  expect,  the  use  of  adjectives  in  this  way  is  very  much 
limited.  For  an  adjective  must  be  pretty  thoroughly  substan¬ 
tivized  before  we  can  feel  free  to  decline  it  in  the  plural,  as  we 
do  other  nouns.  The  best  examples,  and  in  fact  almost  the  only 
ones,  are  the  following: 

As  custom  is  unto  these  nobles  alle.  Marchaundes  Tale,  645. — 

And  he  forth  the  seyntes  ladde.  Secounde  Nonnes  Tale,  369. — 
There  saintes  have  here  comyng.  Court  of  Love,  120. — right 
anoon  the  gentils  gan  to  crie.  Prologue  of  the  Pardoner,  37. — 

Of  honoures  that  oure  eldres  with  us  lefte.  Monkes  Tale,  208. — 

By  God  and  by  his  halwes  twelve.  Boke  of  the  Duchesse,  830. — 

To  innocents  doth  such  grevance.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  4273. — 

And  the  seculars  comprehende.  ibid.,  7175. — Brynge  us '  to  that 
paleyce  that  ys  bilte  To  penytentys.  Chauceres  ABC:Z. — And 
after  hem  of  comuncs  after  here  degre.  Knyghtes  Tale,  1715. 

3.  As  abstract  nouns  in  singular.  The  class  of  adjectives 
used  by  Chaucer  as  abstract  nouns  is  by  far  the  largest 
of  all.  While  it  is,  perhaps,  hardly  necessary  to  give  examples 
of  all,  out  of  the  sixty  different  adjectives  which  I  have  noted 
under  this  head,  we  may  consider  a  few  of  the  most  typical. 
One  very  important  division  of  this  class  is  made  up  of  color 
adjectives.  Of  these  green  is  used  most  frequently. 

And  Emelye,  clothed  al  in  grene.  Knightes  Tale,  827. — Twenty 
bokes  clad  in  blak  and  reed.  Cant.  Tales:  Prologue,  294. — of  fyn 
scarlett  reed.  ibid.  457. — A  long  surcote  of  blue.  ibid.  611. — A 
marchant  was  ther  ...  in  motteleye.  ibid.  271. — They 
gloweden  betwixe  yol-w  and  reed.  ibid.  1274. — With  face  deed, 
betwyxe  pale  and  grene.  Anelyda  and  Arcite,  356. 

Of  all  the  abstract  adjective  substantives  good  is  used  most 
commonly : 


257 


8 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


and  doon  ns  som  good.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gamelyn,  664. — And  ches 
the  best  and  lef  the  worst  for  me.  Knyghtes  Tale,  756. — And 
bad  him  doon  his  best.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gamelyn,  238. — That  yev- 
eth  hem  ful  ofte  in  many  a  gvse  Wei  hettre  than  they  can  hem- 
self  devyse.  Knyghtes  Tale,  1253. — I  recche  naught  what  wrong 
that  thou  me  profre.  Secounde  Nonnes  Tale,  489. — He  thar  nat 
weene  that  evyl  doth.  Reeves  Tale,  400. — Who  hath  the  worse 
.  .  .  ?  Cant.  Tales :  Prologue,  490. — By  alle  right  it  may  do 

me  no  shame !  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  II.  763. — And  al  his 
ernes t  turneth  to  a  jape.  Milleres  Tale,  204. 

This  last  is  one  of  Chaucer’s  favorite  expressions.  The  com¬ 
binations,  erne st  and  jape ,  or  ernest  and  game  occur  very  often. 

Nature,  the  vyker  of  thalmyghty  Lorde,  That  hoot ,  colde,  hevy, 
lyght,  moist  and  drye  Hath  knyt.  Assembly  of  Foules,  397. — 
but  of  myn  oughne  sore  ...  I  telle  may  no  more.  Prologue 
of  Marchaundes  Tale,  31. — for  foule  ne  faire.  Man  of  Lawes 
Tale,  426. — Leving  the  streight,  holding  the  large. — Other  com¬ 
binations  are  •  good  or  ille;  softe  ne  sore;  schort  and  plain; 
heigh  or  lowe;  colde  or  hote. 

He  had  a  jape  of  malice  in  the  derk.  Cokes  Prologue,  14. — For 
unto  him  it  is  a  bitter  swete.  Prologue  of  the  Chanonnes  Yeman, 

325. — Your  bitter  tornen  into  swettenesse.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde 
Bk.  III.  130. — Or  Cecile  is  to  saye,  the  waye  of  blynde.  Secounde 
Nonnes  Tale,  92. — As  shulde  a  maister  of  dyvyne.  Romaunt  of 
the  Rose,  6490. — Her  heed  for  hore  was  whyte  as  floure.  ibid. 

356. 

Other  examples  of  this  usage  are :  the  contrary ,  a  litel,  grete 
(for  greatness),  mene ,  newe,  the  revers,  faire ,  untrewe ,  quiet e , 
veyne,  unright ,  remenaunt,  wery  (for  weariness),-  large,  horde 
(for  hardship). 

We  find  quite  frequently  the  proper  adjective  used  as  the  name 
of  a  language. 

Naught  wist  he  what  his  Latyn  was  to  saye,  Prioresses  Tale, 

71. — And  for  ther  is  so  grete  dyversite  In  Englissche,  and  in 
writynge  of  our  tonge.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  V.  1807. 

A  large  number  of  adjectives  are  found  as  objects  of  prepo¬ 
sitional  phrases  and  are  so  plainly  adverbial  as  to  require  special 
treatment.  No  doubt  they  were  at  first  abstract  nouns,  but  the 
adjective  force  seems  very  largely  to  have  disappeared  even  in 
Chaucer’s  time.  For  examples  of  such  usage  see  II.  E.  5. 


Sub st cultivation  in  Chaucer 


9 


4.  As  abstract  nouns,  in  plural  (with  -s).  As  in  the  case  of 
personal  substantives  with  -s,  we  find  that  examples  are  not  so 
common.  Only  a  limited  number  of  abstract  adjective  substan¬ 
tives  seem  to  have  arrived  at  that  stage  where  they  could  be 
pluralized  as  nouns. 

By  certeyn  means.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  382. — or  ye  have  your 
righies.  Marchaundes  Tale,  41.8. — But  thilke  wronges  may  I  not 
endure.  Secounde  Nonnes  Tale,  491. — schewynge  me  the  perils 
and  the  evils.  Tale  of  Melibeus. — the  grete  goodes  that  comen 
of  pees.  ibid. 

5.  As  neuter  concrete  nouns.  Adjective  substantives  used  as 
neuter  concrete  nouns  are  found  very  frequently  in  Chaucer. 
Of  these  only  ten,  however,  are  used  in  the  plural. 

Whanne  wille  and  goodes  ben  in  comune.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose, 

5209. — And  deyntes  mo  than  I  can  of  devyse.  Man  of  Lawes 
Tale,  321. — The  somme  of  fourty  pound  anoon  of  nobles  fette. 
Chanounnes  Yemannes  Tale,  353. — Sith  thus  of  two  contraries 
is  a  lore.  Trovlus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  645. — the  rentes  and 
rightes.  Persones  Tale. — feldes  and  playnes.  Hous  of  Fame, 

389. — Such  maner  necessaries  as  ben  plesynges.  Man  of  Lawes 
Tale,  613. — A  day  or  tue  ye  schul  have  digestives  Of  wormes, 
er  ye  take  your  laxatives.  Nonne  Prestes  Tale,  141. — And  him 
she  yaf  her  moeubles  and  her  thing.  Tale  of  Melibeus. 

Of  examples  in  the  singular  we  may  easily  make  two  classes, 
namely,  those  which  are  so  thoroughly  substantivized  as  to  have 
a  nominal  function  without  the  context,  and  those  which  depend 
upon  the  context  for  their  substantive  value.  It  is,  of  course, 
only  from  nouns  of  the  former  class  that  plurals  are  made. 
Most  common  of  this  class  is  the  word  good  (meaning 
‘property’ ) . 

to  yive  a  penny  of  hir  good.  Freres  Tale,  277. — Than  in  the  Tour 
the  noble  iforged  newe.  Milleres  Tale,  10. — That  day  that  I  shall 
drenchen  in  the  deepe.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  357. — Thay  doon  a 
grete  contrarie.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  4478. — Thou  darst  nat 
standen  by  thy  wyves  right!  Monkes  Prologue,  24. — the  dyche 
over  the  pleyne.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  4202. — And  woneden  so 
neigh  upon  a  grene..  Legende  of  Thisbe,  7. — For  Goddes  sake 
as  take  som  laxatuf.  Nonne  Prestes  Tale,  123. — By  nature  knew 
he  each  ascensioun  of  equinoxial.  in  thilke  toun.  ibid.  35. 


259 


io  Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 

Of  the  following  the  substantivation  depends  upon  the 
context : 

Which  that  hath  the  schortest  schal  begynne.  Cant.  Tales:  Pro¬ 
logue,  836. — And  cowde  a  certeyn  of  conclusiouns.  Milleres 
Tale,  7. — of  stedes  in  my  stalle  Go  chese  thee  the  best.  Cokes 
Tale  of  Gamelyn,  180. — For  trusteth  wel  it  is  an  impossible 
That  any  clerk  schal  speke.  Prologue .  of  the  Wyf  of  Bathe, 

688. — al  the  revers  seyn  of  his  sentence.  Nonne  Prestes  Tale, 

157. — Of  alle  happes  the  alderbest,  The  gladdest  and  the  moste 
at  reste.  Boke  of  the  Duchesse,  1278. — And  if  the  next  thou 
wolt  forsake.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  2822. — Peyne  the  not  eche 
crooked  to  redresse.  Good  Counseil  of  Chaucer,  8. 

In  addition  to  the  above  examples,  the  following  also  occur: 
worst ,  lesse ,  many  smale  maketh  a  gret,  with  the  first  and  with 
the  best,  the  remenant. 

6.  Numeral  adjectives  as  substantives.  The  use  of  the  nu¬ 
meral  as  a  substantive  is  very  common  in  Chaucer. 

(a)  Numerals  used  as  personal  substantives. 

to  that  on  as  well  as  to  that  other.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gamelyn,  39. — 
(Chaucer’s  use  of  these  two  words  would  indicate  that  even  in 
the  XIV  century  very  little  of  their  numerical  value  remained.) 
Adam  felde  tweyne .  and  Gamelyn  felde  thre.  ibid.  593. — a  thou¬ 
sand  million  rejoising  love.  Court  of  Love,  589. — on  of  the 
tzveye.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  493. 

( b )  Numerals  used  adverbially. 

they  dalten  it  in  two.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gamelyn,  45. — and  then  at 
erste.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  IV.  1293. — and  parted  hem  in 
foure  anoon.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  7749. — As  though  your  herte 
anoon  in  two  wolde  breste.  Praise  of  Women,  58. 

(c)  Numerals  referring  to  time. 

Er  it  be  fully  prime  of  day.  Tale  of  Sir  Thopas,  114. 

7.  Pronominal  adjectives  as  substantives. 

Mystruste  alle  or  elles  alle  leve.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  III. 

688. — And  he  that  mover  is  of  alle.  Hous  of  Fame.  Bk.  I.  81. — 

Fewe  was  ther  that  night  that  slept.  Swicn  an  other  for  to 
make.  Hous  of  Fame.  Bk.  III.  81. 


260 


Substantivation  in  Chaucer 


1 1 

Many  illustrations  of  the  use  of  oon  and  other  as  pronouns 
can  be  found. 

D.  Substantivation  of  superlatives  and  comparatives. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  adjectives  in  the  positive  degree 
many  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  found  to  be  substantiv¬ 
ized  by  Chaucer. 

1.  Comparatives. 

Ne  never  saugh  I  a  more  bountevous  Of  hyre  estate  ne  gladder 
nor  of  speche  A  f rend  Iyer.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  883. — 

Of  harmes  the  lesse  is  for  to  chese.  ibid.  Bk.  II.  470. — In  love  a 
falser  herde  I  never  none.  Phillis,  5. — Of  honours  that  oure 
eldres  with  us  lefte.  Monkes  Tale,  208. — That  at  the  fest  leet 
slee  both  more  and  lesse.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  861. 

2.  Superlatives. 

to  the  lest  and  to  the  meste.  Squyeres  Tale,  292. — best  unto  best. 

Court  of  Love,  594. — Emelye,  the  rewfullest  of  alle  the  com- 
panye.  Knyghtes  Tale,  2026. — He  that  semeth  the  wisest ,  by 
Jesus,  Is  most  fool.  Born  of  the  gentilest  and  the  heighest  Of 
al  this  land.  Clerkes  Tale,  75. — I  am  oon  the  faireste.  Troylus 
and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  II.  746. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  use  of  comparatives  and  superlatives 
with  one,  a  very  common  usage  in  modern  English,  is  seldom 
seen  in  Chaucer.  Probably  not  more  than  a  half  dozen  exam¬ 
ples  are  to  be  found.  Of  special  interest  in  this  connection  is  the 
following  statement  by  Dr.  Louise  Pound,1  “Examples  of  the 
substantivation  of  comparatives  and  superlatives  as  personal  sub¬ 
stantives  through  one  are  not  frequent  even  in  the  last  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  it  was  very  common  with  the  pos¬ 
itive.  Dr.  Gerber,  investigating  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  century 
English,  finds  but  one  example.” 


1  Comparison  of  Adjectives  in  English  in  the  XV.  and  the  XVI.  Century, 

p.  64. 


261 


i2  Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 

E.  The  Syntax  of  substantivized  adjectives. 

Chaucer  uses  his  adjective  substantives,  as  a  general  rule,  just 
about  as  he  uses  other  nouns.  Certain  peculiarities  of  usage  we 
may  note  specially. 

i.  General  uses: 

(a)  As  subject  of  a  verb. 

Now  foule  falle  hire  for  thi  wo  and  care.  Troylus  and  Cry- 
seyde.  Bk.  IV.  434. — good  and  wikkednesse  ben  two  contraries. 

Tale  of  Melibeus. — The  stronge  the  feble  overgoth.  Romaunt 
of  the  Rose,  6823. 

Adjectives  thus  substantivized  are  used  very  often  in  appo¬ 
sition  to  the  subject. 

Faire  they  were  welcomed,  bothe  leste  and  meste.  Cokes  Tale 
of  Gamelyn,  460. — Ful  besily  they  wayten,  yonge  and  olde. 
Squyeres  Tale,  80. 

( h )  As  the  object  of  a  verb. 

A!  wolde  ye  nowe  repent  and  love  some  newe?  Court  of  Love, 

462. — and  sauf  your  feithful  trewe.  ibid.  993. — That  any  clerk 
schal  speke  good  of  wyves.  Prologue  of  Wyf  of  Bathe,  689. — 

So  that  ye  otfren  nobles  or  starlings.  Prologue  of  Pardoner, 

445. 

( c )  As  the  predicate  noun. 

he  is  the  worthy este.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  II.  739. — For 
trusteth  wel,  it  is  an  impossible.  Prologue  of  Wyf  of  Bathe,  688. 

( d )  Traces  of  the  old  partitive  genitive  are  shown  still  in  a 
few  expressions: 

I  am  a  sede  foule,  oon  the  umvorthieste.  Assembly  of  Foules, 

512. — And  yet  was  he,  wher-so  men  went  or  riden  Found  oon 
the  fairest  under  sonne.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  493. — For 
sche  was  oon  the  fairest  under  sonne.  Frankeleynes  Tale,  6. — I 
have  the  most  stedefast  wyf  And  eek  the  meekest  oon  that  ber- 
eth  lyf.  Marchaundes  Tale,  307. — I  am  oon  the  fair  este  out  of 
drede.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  II.  746. 


262 


Substantiation  in  Chaucer 


i3 


( e )  As  the  object  of  a  preposition: 

To  make  him  lyve  by  his  propre  good .  Cant.  Tales :  Prologue, 

581. — As  custom  is  unto  these  nobles  alle.  Marchaundes  Tale, 

645. — Uproos  the  oon  of  these  olde  wise.  Tale  of  Melibeus. 

Born  of  the  gentilest  and  the  heighest  of  this  land.  Clerkes 
Tale,  75. — By  certeyn  menes.  Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  382. — That 
day  that  I  shall  drenchen  in  the  deepe.  Prologue  of  Wyf  of 
Bathe,  314. 

2.  Use  in  the  vocative  and  in  exclamations. 

Have  mercy  on  me,  swete,  or  ye  wolen  do  me  deye.  Frankel- 
eynes  Tale,  250. — Com  doun  my  leef ,  and  if  I  have  myssayde. 
Marchandes  Tale,  1145. — Farwel,  my  swete!  farwel  my  Emelye. 
Knyghtes  Tale,  1922. — Now  faire  blisfulle,  O  Cipris.  Hous  of 
Fame.  Bk.  II.  10. — myn  owne  deere.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose, 

4377. — Humblest  of  herte,  higheste  of  reverence.  Compleynte  of 
Dethe  of  Pite,  57. — O  seely  prest  O  sely  innocent.  Court  of 
Love,  631. — Feirest  of  alle  that  ever  were  or  do!  Court  of  Love, 

631. 

3.  Use  with  adjective  and  adverb  modifiers.  The  general 
statement  made  at  the  beginning  of  this  discussion  of  syntax 
applies  here.  Adjectives  substantivized  may  be  modified  by 
other  adjectives  just  as  nouns  are.  So  we  find  in  Chaucer: 

the  neve  slye  Maketh  the  ferre  leef  to  be  loth.  Milleres  Tale, 

206. — That  goode  leef  my  wyf.  Prologue  of  Monkes  Tale,  6. — 

And  I  to  ben  youre  veray  humble  trewe.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde. 

Bk.  III.  92. — the  proverbe  saith  that  many  smale  maketh  a 
grete.  Persones  Tale. — And  chyde  her  the  holy  innocent  your 
wyfe.  Sompnoures  Tale,  275. — And  to  the  doctrine  of  these  olde 
wyse.  Prologue  of  Legende  of  Goode  Women,  19. — For  unto 
hem  it  is  a  bitter  swete.  Prologue  of  Chanounnes  Yeman,  325. — 

And  saugh  the  soruful  ernesl  of  the  knyght.  Troylus  and  Cry¬ 
seyde  Bk.  II.  453. 

4.  Those  adjectives  which  are  not  so  completely  substantivized 
as  to  have  lost  altogether  their  adjective  nature  may  be  modified 
by  adverbs: 


263 


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Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


(a)  In  the  positive  degree: 

The  sonne  saugh  nevere  yet  ...  so  inly  faire,  so  goodly 
as  is  she.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  III.  1555. — That  yeveth 
him  ful  ofte  wel  better  than  thei  can  hemself  devyse.  Knyghtes 
Tale,  395.— And  seyst  thou  hast  to  litel  and  he  hath  al.  Man  of 
Lawes  Tale,  II. 

In  the  case  of  verray  right  (Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  1627) 
verray  seems  to  be  in  that  transitional  state  where  it  is  either 
adjective  or  adverb. 

( b )  In  the  comparative  degree: 

Ne  never  saugh  I  a  more  bountevous  ne  a  more  graciouse. 
Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  883. — And  therto  I  saugh  never 
yet  a  less  Harmful  than  she  was  in  doynge.  Boke  of  the  Du- 
chesse,  993. 

5.  Use  with  the  article. 

(a)  The  indefinite  article. 

Of  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article  with  substantivized  adjec¬ 
tives,  Maetzner1  s'ays:  “The  transmutation  of  an  adjective  into 
an  uninflective  substantive,  as  a  name  of  a  person,  is  not  favored 
in  Modern  English,  in  connection  with  the  indefinite  articles.  Ad¬ 
jectives  and  participles,  otherwise  capable  of  being  used  sub¬ 
stantively  with  the  definite  article,  support  themselves  when  re¬ 
ferred  to  an  indeterminate  individual  by  the  pronominal  one, 
which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  substantive  bearer  of  the  adjective. 
‘There  cometh  one  mightier  than  I  after  me’  (Mark  I,  7).” 
This  shows  us  modern  conditions  as  Maetzner  found  them  and 
also  gives  us  his  opinion  concerning  the  degree  of  substantia¬ 
tion  of  adjectives  when  so  used  with  one. 

In  Chaucer  we  find,  however,  a  slight  variation  from  present 
usage  in  this  respect.  For  examples  we  have : 

a  true  swynk  and  a  good  was  he.  Cant.  Tales :  Prologue,  531. — 

A  theef  he  was,  forsoth,  of  corn  and  mele  And  that  a  sleigh. 
Reeves  Tale,  20. 

1  Englische  Grammatik ,  vol.  Ill,  p.  182. 


264 


Substantiation  in  Chaucer 


15 


# 


It  is  to  be  noted  that  whereas  we  now  use  the  expression,  such 
a  one ,  Chaucer  omits  the  article,  thus: 

With  swich  oon  as  he  is.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  V.  740. — 

To  have  a  newe.  Anelyda  and  Arcite,  277. — In  love  a  falser 
herde  I  never  none.  Phillis,  5. — And  cowde  a  certeyn  of  conclu- 
siouns..  Milleres  Tale,  7. — For  trusteth  wel,  it  is  an  impossible. 
Prologue  of  Wyf  of  Bathe,  688. — The  proverbe  saith  that  many 
srpale  maketh  a  gret.  Persones  Tale. — To  lene  a  man  a  noble 
or  two  or  thre.  Chanounnes  Yemannes  Tale,  26. 

The  use  of  a  in  the  last  example  is  somewhat  different,  how¬ 
ever,  because  noble  is  so  thoroughly  substantivized.  So  also 
with  an  evyle,  a  grene,  etc. 

(b)  The  definite  article.  By  Chaucer  the  definite  article  is 
often  omitted  where  in  modern  usage  it  seems  necessary.  With 
plural  personal  substantives  (without  -.?)  we  do  not  omit  except 
in  such  couplets  as  good  and  bad,  old  and  young,  zvise  and  fool¬ 
ish,  etc.  But  Chaucer  is  much  more  free  to  omit  the  article. 

O  trouble  wit,  O  ire  recheles  That  unavised  smytest  gulteles. 
Maunciples  Tale,  175. — The  way  of  blynde.  Secounde  Nonnes 
Tale,  92. — Victorious  tre,  proteccioun  of  trewe.  Man  of  Lawes 
Tale,  358. — Now,  lady  bright,  to  whpm  alle  wofulle  cryen.  ibid. 

752. 

Of  course  the  personal  substantives  (with  -s)  are  so  far  .sub¬ 
stantivized  that  the  article  may  be  used  or  omitted,  just  as  with 
any  other  noun.  This  is  true  also  of  the  plural  abstracts. 

With  the  singular  abstract  substantives  the  article  may  be 
used  or  omitted.  With  substantivized  adjectives  of  color  it  is 
generally  omitted  as  in  Modern  English,  “a  lady  thus  al  in  blak.,J 
Knyghtes  Tale,  600.  Likewise  with  proper  adjectives  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  omitted.  “Who  couthe  ryme  in  Englissh  propurly.” 
Knyghtes  Tale,  600. 

Neuter  concrete  nouns,  made  from  adjectives,  are  used  with 
the  or  without,  “the  goodes  of  nature.”  Persones  Tale. — “For 
lak  of  goode.”  Court  of  Love,  1142. 

6.  Use  as  adverbial  substantives.  Many  adjectives  substan¬ 
tives,  which  were  undoubtedly  abstract  nouns  at  first,  seem 


265 


i6 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


% 


gradually  to  have  assumed  the  function  of  adverbs  when  used 
with  prepositions.  Of  course  it  is  difficult  to  draw  any  line  be¬ 
tween  those  which  are  still  abstract  nouns  and  those  that  are 
adverbial,  but  a  number  have  been  listed  here  quite  confidently 
because  they  seem  so  very  plainly  adverbial. 

The  expression  atte  last  or  at  the  laste  seems  to  mean  little 
more  than  our  adverb  finally. 

And  atte  last  this  hende  Nicholas  Gan  for  to  syke.  Milleres 
Tale,  301. — Tho  was  I  war,  lo !  at  the  laste.  Hous  of  Fame. 

Bk.  I.  495. — The  expression  atte  lest  or  at  the  leste  is  also  very 
common.  Two  days,  atte  lest ,  or  thre.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose, 

1684. — Loke  at  the  leest  thou  have  a  pair.  ibid.  2265. — To  helpe 
delen  his  londes  and  dressen  hem  to  rightes.  Cokes  Tale  of  Gam- 
elyn,  18. — Amonges  alle  these  othere  in  generate;  And  forthy 
see  that  thou,  in  speciale.  Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  I.  901. — 

God  saith  thou  schalt  not  take  the  name  of  thy  Lord  God  in 
vayne  or  in  ydil.  Persones  Tale. — governeth  alle  in  comune. 
Nonne  Prestes  Tale,  180. — sith  this  thing  of  hewe  is  yeve  me. 
Court  of  Love,  643. — To  telle  in  shorte,  withoute  wordes  mo. 
Troylus  and  Cryseyde.  Bk.  III.  185.  So  also  the  expressions, 
for  the  beste,  atte  full ,  by  right  (rightfully),  in  ydel  (idly), 
with  wrong  (wrongfully),  in  ernest,  at  large,  atte  meste,  for 
fynal  (finally),  in  certeyn,  in  hye  (on  high),  for  as  much  (in¬ 
asmuch),  from  eterne  (eternally),  for  soth,  of  old. 

F.  Relative  substantiation  of  native  and  Romance  words. 

With  the  question  of  the  beginning  of  this  process  of  sub¬ 
stantiation,  comes  the  suggestion  that  the  French  were  respon¬ 
sible  for  it.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  investigation  to  discuss 
that  question,  but  at  the  same  time  a  thorough  study  of  the  proc¬ 
ess  in  Chaucer  requires  at  least  a  comparison  of  the  words  as  we 
find  them. 

i.  Of  the  personal  substantives  (without  -s),  the  sources  are 
as  follows : 

(a)  Old  English  words,  lesse,  leste,  more,  meste ,  goode , 
beste,  yonge,  yongest,  heigh,  heighest,  olde,  fairer,  feir- 
est,  worthy ,  worthieste,  trewe,  untrewe,  ferrest,  gultyf, 


265 


Substantivation  in  Chaucer 


i7 


gulteles,  zvyse,  wisest ,  riche,  sike,  fre ,  bonde,  grettest, 
lowe,  zvorst,  dere,  ncwe ,  konnyngcste ,  greye ,  swete, 
formest ,  blisfulle,  stronge ,  wofulle ,  needful ,  harmful , 
rew fullest,  leef,  slye. 

(b)  French  words.  poore,  gentilest,  feble ,  humblest ,  in¬ 
nocent ,  coveytous ,  seint,  suffrant,  patient,  graciouse, 
bountevous. 

2.  Personal  substantives  (with  -s). 

(a)  Old  English  words,  eldres,  halwes. 

(b)  French  words,  nobles,  seyntes,  gentils,  innocents, 
penytentys,  comunes . 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  case  of  these  words  which  have 
been  substantivized  thoroughly  enough  to  take  on  inflectional 
forms,  the  majority  are  of  French  origin.  This  might  argue 
that  the  process  of  substantivation  started  with  the  French. 


The  figures  for  the  different  classes  are  as  follows : 


1. 

Personal 

(without  -s) . , 

...Old 

English— 

-33 

Romance- 

-11 

2. 

Personal 

(with  -s) _ 

yy 

2 

yy 

6 

3. 

Abstract 

(without  -s)  . . 

yy 

31 

yy 

11 

4. 

Abstract 

(with  -s)  . . . . 

” 

yy 

5 

yy 

1 

5. 

Neuters 

yy 

yy 

14 

V 

10 

Totals 

...Old 

English 

85 

Romance 

39 

This  summary  does  not  include  the  few  Latin  words  which 
appear  for  Chaucer.  While  these  lists  do  not  pretend  to  record 
every  example  of  the  substantivation  of  adjectives  in  Chaucer, 
yet  they  are  so  nearly  complete  as  to  give  a  fair  presentation  of 
conditions. 

III.  GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 

For  the  most  part,  in  Old  English,  the  adjective  was  used  only 
as  a  personal  substantive.  This  substantivation,  moreover,  seems 
to  have  been  due  almost  altogether  to  the  second  cause  given  by 
Kellner,  namely,  the  dropping  of  an  unnecessary  noun.  This  is 


267 


8 


Arthur  Garfield  Kennedy 


done  very  frequently  even  in  the  Beoivulf.  On  the  contrary 
very  few  examples  are  found  of  the  other  uses  of  adjective  sub¬ 
stantives,  so  common  in  later  English. 

Judging  from  conditions  as  ,we  find  them  in  Chaucer,  we  can 
not  say  that  the  process  of  substantiation  in  the  fourteenth  cen¬ 
tury  was  much  different  from  that  of  the  twentieth  century.  A 
large  per  cent  of  the  examples  which  have  been  given  can  be 
paralleled  in  modern  English..  We  substantivize  as  many  of  our 
adjectives  as  Chaucer  did.  In  fact  almost  every  adjective  can 
be  so  used. 

The  narrowing  in  is  in  the  manner  of  substantiation.  We 
can  not  substantivize  in  as  many  ways  as  did  earlier  speakers  of 
English.  This  is  doubtless  what  Franz  means  when  he  says,1 
“Die  Grenze,  innerhalb  deren  die  Substantivirung  des  Adjectivs 
moglich  ist,  sind  in  Shakespeare’s  Zeit  noch  wesentlich  weitere 
als  in  der  modernen  Sprache.”  This  is  true  especially  with  re¬ 
gard  to  the  definite  article.  As  a  general  rule  we  never  think  of 
omitting  the  article  when  we  make  personal  substantives  of  ad¬ 
jectives.  Where  Chaucer  said,  “The  way  of  blynde”  we  must 
write,  “The  way  of  the  blind.” 

One  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  such  couplets  as  young 
and  old,  good  and  had,  wise  and  foolish,  living  and  dead.  This 
is  apparently  an  isolated  survival  of  a  use  common  in  the  time 
of  Chaucer. 

We  find  the  personal  adjective  substantives  in  the  plural, 
(with  -s),  at  about  the  same  stage  of  substantivation  in  Chaucer 
as  in  modern  English.  This  seems  also  true  of  the  adverbial 
expressions.  At  last  appears,  with  Chaucer,  to  mean  finally,  just 
as  it  does  to-day. 

In  the  case  of  partially  substantivized  adjectives  we  find  a 
complete  change  since  the  fourteenth  century.  Chaucer  used 
the  adjective  with  one  very  seldom;  to-day  it  is  our  most  com¬ 
mon  method  of  substantivizing.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ad¬ 
jective  referring  to  a  preceding  noun  as  a  good  man  and  a  true, 
was  quite  common  in  Chaucer’s  day  and  became  even  more  so  in 
Shakespeare’s  time ;  to-day  we  find  few  instances  of  such  usage. 

1  Shakespeare  Grammatik,  p.  60. 


268 


Substantivation  in  Chaucer 


<9 


TEXT 

The  Complete  Works  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  ed.  by  Rev.  W.  W. 
Skeat.  Oxford,  1894. 

LITERATURE  CONSULTED 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  Inflection  and  Syntax  of  the  Morte  D’Arthur 
of  Sir  Thomas  Malory.  1894. 

Einenkel,  E.  Streifzuge  durch  die  Mittelenglische  Syntax. 
1887. 

Emerson,  O.  F.  History  of.  the  English  Language.  1902. 
Franz,  W.  Shakespeare  Grammatik.  1900. 

Gerber,  H.  Die  Substantivirung  des  Adjectivs  im  XV  und 
XVI  Jahrhundert.  1895. 

Kaluza,  M.  Historische  Grammatik  der  Englische  Sprache. 
1900. 

Kellner,  L.  Historical  Outlines  of  English  Syntax.  1892. 
Maetzner,  E.  Englische  Grammatik.  1874. 

Morsbach,  L.  Mittelenglische  Grammatik.  1896. 

Pound,  L.  Comparison  of  Adjectives  in  English  in  the  XV 
and  XVI  Century.  1901. 

Sweet,  H.  A  New  English  Grammar.  1892. 


269 


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